Political Instability Era (1951–1956)

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Topic: Political & constitutional history 1951–1956: the era of political instability. Covers BPC Report II, the 1953 riots and first martial law, the Bogra Formula, provincial elections, the 1954 amendments, dissolution of the Assembly, the Tamizuddin & Usif Patel cases, One Unit, the Second Constituent Assembly, the 1956 Constitution, SEATO/CENTO and the economy.

CSS relevance: 🔥 Very high. Tamizuddin case / doctrine of necessity, One Unit, Bogra Formula, 1954 elections and SEATO/CENTO are repeatedly asked.

🗺️ Overview

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I. Rulers (1951–1956)

Governors-General

• Ghulam Muhammad: 19 Oct 1951 – Aug 1955. He had been Finance Minister in Liaquat's cabinet.
• Iskander Mirza: Aug 1955 – 22 Mar 1956.
  • When the 1956 Constitution came into force (23 March 1956), the post of Governor-General was abolished.
  • Mirza became Pakistan's first President.

Prime Ministers

• Khawaja Nazimuddin: 17 Oct 1951 – 17 Apr 1953.
  • He was Governor-General when Liaquat was killed, and chose to step down to become PM, because the PM held more real power (although the GG's post was more prestigious).
• Muhammad Ali Bogra: 17 Apr 1953 – Aug 1955. He was Pakistan's ambassador to the USA before being made PM.
• Chaudhry Muhammad Ali: Aug 1955 – Sept 1956, about one year.

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II. Nature of the Period

• Known as an era of political instability (1951–1958), marked by frequent political crises.
• No government was strong. PMs were changed repeatedly through intrigues and conspiracies.
• The Muslim League split into groups that worked against each other for personal and group interests.
• The bureaucracy was in the driving seat:
  • Ghulam Muhammad, Iskander Mirza and Chaudhry Muhammad Ali were bureaucrats.
  • Bogra came from the diplomatic service.
• The military began to interfere in politics.
• The USA backed the bureaucratic establishment, and Pakistan fully joined the Western bloc in the Cold War.
• The political leadership and bureaucracy showed a clear lust for power.

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III. Basic Principles Committee Report II (1952)

• Presented by PM Khawaja Nazimuddin to the Constituent Assembly on 22 December 1952.
• The Objectives Resolution was made the Preamble.

Head of State & executive

• The Head of State had to be a Muslim.
  • Elected for 5 years by a joint sitting of both houses.
  • Could serve no more than two consecutive terms.
• The PM was to be appointed by the Head of State.
• Ministers were to be appointed by the Head of State on the PM's advice.
• The Head of State had wide powers: issuing ordinances and dissolving the House of People.

Federal legislature (bicameral)

• House of Units (upper): 120 members, 60 East Pakistan + 60 West Pakistan, giving parity in the upper house.
  • West Pakistan's 60: Punjab 27, Sindh 8, NWFP 6, Balochistan 2, Tribal Areas 5, Bahawalpur 4, Capital (Karachi) 4, Khairpur 2, Baloch States 2.
• House of People (lower): 400 members, 200 East + 200 West.
  • West Pakistan's 200: Punjab 90, Sindh 30, NWFP 25, Tribal Areas 17, Bahawalpur 13, Capital (Karachi) 11, Balochistan 5, Baloch States 5, Khairpur 4.
• Real authority was given to the House of People.

Provinces (units)

• The Head of the Unit (Governor) was to be appointed by the Head of State for a maximum of 5 years.
• The Chief Minister was to be appointed by the Governor.
• Each unit would have a unicameral legislature.

Judiciary & civil service

• A Supreme Court of a Chief Justice and 2–6 judges, and a High Court in each province.
• Protection for civil servants against arbitrary dismissal or removal, as a safeguard after PRODA. They were to be given a hearing and an inquiry first.

Reaction

• It was more balanced than the first report, but met the same response.
• This time the opposition came from West Pakistan, especially Punjab.
  • Punjab objected that West Pakistan had been split into 8–9 units for seat allocation. This fragmented its strength and gave East Pakistan numerical superiority.
• Result: another deadlock in constitution-making.

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IV. 1953 Riots & the First Martial Law

• Two movements disturbed law and order:
  1. the anti-Ahmadi (anti-Qadiani) movement in Punjab, centred on Lahore
  2. the Bengali language movement in East Bengal.
• The anti-Ahmadi movement was launched by the Majlis-e-Ahrar, with three demands:
  1. remove Sir Zafarullah Khan (an Ahmadi) as Foreign Minister
  2. remove Ahmadis from key government posts
  3. declare Ahmadis non-Muslim.
• Casualties: officially at least 20 killed and 69 injured. Some books put the deaths at around 200.
• The police and local administration failed to control the situation, so the army was called in.
• Martial law was imposed on Lahore (1953) for about 3 months, and law and order was restored.
  • It was the first martial law in Pakistan, and the first intervention of the armed forces in civil administration.
• A judicial inquiry (the Munir–Kayani inquiry, 1954) blamed the administration's failure.
  • As a result, Punjab CM Mian Mumtaz Daultana was removed and Malik Feroz Khan Noon (Muslim League) replaced him.

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V. Dismissal of Khawaja Nazimuddin (17 April 1953)

• Differences grew between Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad and PM Nazimuddin.
• Nazimuddin's charges:
  • Ghulam Muhammad was physically incapacitated. He had suffered paralysis and could hardly speak.
  • The GG's house had become a centre of conspiracy, with the bureaucracy and military trying to destabilise his government.
• The GG's case: the riots and the food situation showed the administration had failed.
  • He called a cabinet meeting and asked Nazimuddin to resign. Nazimuddin refused.
• On 17 April 1953 the GG dismissed Nazimuddin, even though Nazimuddin still had the confidence of the Assembly.
• Muhammad Ali Bogra was appointed PM.
• Significance: the first time a Governor-General dismissed an elected PM. It set the pattern of executive (bureaucratic) dominance over Parliament.

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VI. Muhammad Ali Bogra Formula (1953)

• Both BPC reports had been rejected. Bogra presented his formula to break the deadlock over power-sharing between East and West Pakistan.
• Presented in the Constituent Assembly on 7 October 1953; adopted in October 1954.

House of Units (upper): 50 seats, 10 for each of five units:

House of People (lower): 300 seats, distributed by population:

Parity in the joint session

• East Pakistan: 165 + 10 = 175.
• West Pakistan: 135 + 40 = 175.
• So both wings had 175 seats in a joint session.

Other safeguards

• Both houses to have equal powers; conflicts to be settled in a joint session.
• Decisions in a joint session needed a majority that included at least 30% of members from each wing.
• If the Head of State came from one wing, the PM had to come from the other.
• The Supreme Court, rather than a Board of Ulema, would decide whether a law was against Islam.

Significance

• Welcomed in both wings as a fair compromise.
• It could not be implemented, because the Assembly was dissolved in October 1954.

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VII. Provincial Elections (1951–1954)

No national election was possible without a constitution, but provincial elections were held.

Punjab (10–20 March 1951)

• The first direct election held after independence.
• About 190 seats; 7 parties contested; about 1 million voters; held on adult franchise.
• The Muslim League won. Mian Mumtaz Daultana became Chief Minister.
  • He was dismissed after the 1953 riots and replaced by Feroz Khan Noon.

NWFP (8 December 1951)

• The Muslim League won. Abdul Qayyum Khan became CM.

Sindh (May 1953)

• The Muslim League won. Pirzada Abdul Sattar became CM, followed by Muhammad Ayub Khuhro.
• Result in the West: the Muslim League formed governments in all three provinces.

East Bengal (March 1954): a turning point

• The United Front (Jugto Front) alliance crushed the Muslim League.
• The United Front won about 223–228 of 309 seats. The Muslim League won only about 10.
• United Front parties:
  1. Awami Muslim League (Suhrawardy, Bhashani)
  2. Krishak Sramik Party (A.K. Fazlul Haq)
  3. Nizam-e-Islam
  4. Ganatantri Dal
• It contested on a 21-point programme that included Bengali as a state language and provincial autonomy.
• Non-Muslim seats: Congress 25, Scheduled Caste Federation 27, United Front minority wing 13. The Muslim League won none.
• A.K. Fazlul Haq was asked to form the ministry by Governor Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman. He had been Bengal's CM before partition.
• The ministry was dismissed within about two months (May 1954), and Governor's rule was imposed.
• Why the Muslim League lost:
  • the unresolved language issue
  • economic neglect of East Bengal
  • Bengali grievances against the centre.
• Significance: the end of the Muslim League in East Pakistan, and the rise of Bengali regional politics, which led toward 1971.

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VIII. 1954 Amendments to the Government of India Act 1935

• The Assembly acted to curb the Governor-General after Nazimuddin's dismissal. It made two main changes (September 1954):
  1. Repealed PRODA (1949), which had hung like a sword over politicians.
  2. Amended Sections 9, 10, 10-A and 10-B of the adapted 1935 Act.
• The amendments took away the GG's power to dismiss ministers and the PM, so that a Nazimuddin-type dismissal could not be repeated. The cabinet was made responsible to the Assembly.
• Result: open conflict (a "cold war") between the Governor-General and the Constituent Assembly.

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IX. Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly & the Court Cases

Dissolution (24 October 1954)

• Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the first Constituent Assembly and declared a state of emergency.
• He kept Bogra as PM with a new cabinet, often called the "Cabinet of Talents".
  • Iskander Mirza joined as Interior Minister.
  • Gen. Ayub Khan, while still C-in-C, became Defence Minister. It was the first entry of a serving army chief into the cabinet.
  • Others included Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, H.S. Suhrawardy, Dr Khan Sahib, M.A. Ispahani, Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola, Syed Abid Hussain and Abu Hussain Sarkar.
• This opened a dark chapter in constitutional history.

Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan case (1955)

Sindh Chief Court

• Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan, President of the Constituent Assembly, challenged the dissolution in the Sindh Chief Court.
• A full bench unanimously ruled that:
  • the Indian Independence Act 1947 contained no provision for dissolving the Assembly
  • therefore the GG had no power to dissolve it, and the dissolution was illegal.

Federal Court

• The government appealed to the Federal Court.
• On 21 March 1955, the Federal Court, led by Chief Justice Muhammad Munir, ruled 4–1 in favour of the government and reversed the Sindh court's decision.
• Grounds were technical, not on the merits:
  • The amendment adding Section 223-A (the writ jurisdiction under which Tamizuddin had filed his petition) had never received the GG's assent.
  • So the Sindh court had no jurisdiction to hear the case.
• Justice A.R. Cornelius wrote the only dissenting note, deciding on the merits. He earned lasting respect for it.
• Result:
  • The Assembly stayed dissolved.
  • The judgment laid the foundation of the doctrine of necessity, which was later used to justify extra-constitutional acts.

Usif Patel v. The Crown (1955)

• With no Assembly, the GG issued an Emergency Powers Ordinance (1955), giving himself law-making powers, including validating laws and changing the constitution.
• A full bench of the Federal Court under CJ Munir ruled that:
  • the GG could not make constitutional provisions through an ordinance
  • only a Constituent Assembly can frame or amend the constitution.
• Result: the GG's emergency powers were rejected. It was a landmark judgment.
• Follow-up: in the Special Reference (1955), the court allowed the GG to validate laws temporarily, but required him to convene a new Constituent Assembly. This led to the Second CA.

Exit of Ghulam Muhammad

• His health had badly declined (paralysis; he could hardly speak or communicate).
• He was forced out in August 1955.
• Interior Minister Iskander Mirza, who had strong backing, including from a superpower (the USA), took over as Governor-General.
• Mirza remained Governor-General until March 1956, then became the first President under the 1956 Constitution.

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X. Second Constituent Assembly (1955)

• Set up by the GG's proclamation, as the court had said only a Constituent Assembly could make the constitution.
• 80 members, indirectly elected by the provincial assemblies. It first met in July 1955 at Murree.

Seat distribution

Party position

• The Muslim League was the largest party but had no majority. In the first Assembly it had held about 40 of 75 seats.
• No party could form a government alone, so coalitions became unavoidable.
• 7 of the 14 old cabinet members either did not contest or lost.
• Bogra resigned and went back to Washington as ambassador to the USA.
• A Muslim League–United Front coalition made Chaudhry Muhammad Ali PM (August 1955).

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XI. One Unit Scheme (1955)

• The first major step of Chaudhry Muhammad Ali's government. It was needed to give parity between the two wings.
• Passed on 30 September 1955 (Establishment of West Pakistan Act). It took effect on 14 October 1955.
• Merged the West Pakistan provinces (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan), plus the princely states and tribal areas, into one province: West Pakistan.
  • This created two provinces of roughly equal political weight: East Pakistan and West Pakistan.
• Capital: Lahore. First CM: Dr Khan Sahib. First Governor: Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani.

Opposition

• Great resistance from the start.
• East Pakistani politicians said it was pushed by the Punjabi elite since 1953 to stop East Pakistan's numerical majority from gaining power at the centre.
• Smaller provinces (Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan) feared Punjabi domination.

End

• Abolished by Yahya Khan in 1970 (1 July 1970). The four provinces were restored.

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XII. 1956 Constitution

• The draft was prepared by the Second CA and published on 8 January 1956.
  • The Objectives Resolution was included as its Preamble.
  • The draft had 13 parts and about 245 articles. The final text had 234 articles.
• Approved on 29 February 1956 with some amendments.
• Assented to by the Governor-General, and enforced on 23 March 1956.
  • Pakistan became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, and Iskander Mirza became the first President.
• This was Pakistan's first constitution, after nine years of difficulties. Its salient features are covered in the next lecture.

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XIII. Foreign Policy (1951–1956)

• 1947–51: officially non-aligned, but tilted toward the USA (Liaquat's 1950 visit).
• 1951–56: Pakistan formally joined the Western bloc, through US-sponsored military pacts. The first step was the Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement with the USA (May 1954).

SEATO: South East Asia Treaty Organization (September 1954)

• Signed at Manila.
• Members: USA, UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan.
• Aim: stop the spread of communism in South-East and South Asia.
• Pakistan was practically placed in the US camp.

Baghdad Pact / CENTO (1955)

• A Cold War military alliance, formed on 24 February 1955.
• Members: Iraq, Turkey, UK, Pakistan and Iran. Pakistan joined in 1955.
• It had three names:
  • Baghdad Pact
  • Middle East Treaty Organization (METO)
  • CENTO (Central Treaty Organization), its name after Iraq left in 1959.
• The USA backed it but was not a full member.

Result

• US military and economic aid flowed in.
• Pakistan's image as a Western ally.
• Relations with the USSR and the non-aligned world were strained.

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XIV. Economy (1951–1956)

• The 1950s are called the first decade of planning, when the foundations of the economy were laid from scratch.
  • Pakistan joined the Colombo Plan (1951).
  • A Planning Board was set up (1953).
  • The First Five-Year Plan (1955–60) was prepared, along with a 10-year perspective plan and a 3-year development plan.
• Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI):
  • Set up local industries to replace imported goods.
  • The aim was to reduce the burden on foreign exchange and move toward self-reliance.
• Korean War boom (1950–52):
  • High demand for Pakistan's raw materials (jute, cotton).
  • Traders made large merchant profits, which were turned into industrial capital. This sped up industrialisation.
• 1952: import of cotton textiles and luxury goods banned.
• 1953: virtually all imports regulated.
• Result: Pakistan joined the fastest-growing countries of the 1950s, mainly through small and medium enterprises.
• Anti-agriculture bias: policy and terms of trade favoured industry.
  • Agricultural growth fell (to about 1.9% a year).
• Exports:
  • jute from East Pakistan
  • cotton from West Pakistan
  • cotton textiles, after self-sufficiency in the late 1950s.
• US military and economic aid of about US$500 million (1955–58) followed the SEATO/CENTO membership.
  • Pakistan entered a phase of foreign-aid-dependent growth, and the dependency began here.

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📊 Key Figures at a Glance

🗓️ Timeline

• Mar 1951: Punjab elections; Daultana becomes CM.
• 17 Oct 1951: Nazimuddin becomes PM.
• 19 Oct 1951: Ghulam Muhammad becomes Governor-General.
• Dec 1951: NWFP elections; Qayyum Khan becomes CM.
• 1951: Pakistan joins the Colombo Plan.
• 1952: ban on textile and luxury imports.
• 22 Dec 1952: BPC Report II presented.
• 1953: anti-Ahmadi riots; martial law in Lahore; Munir inquiry.
• 17 Apr 1953: Nazimuddin dismissed; Bogra becomes PM.
• May 1953: Sindh elections.
• 7 Oct 1953: Bogra Formula presented.
• Mar 1954: United Front sweeps East Bengal; Fazlul Haq becomes CM (dismissed in May).
• May 1954: Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement with the USA.
• Sept 1954: PRODA repealed; GG's powers curtailed.
• Sept 1954: Pakistan joins SEATO.
• 24 Oct 1954: Constituent Assembly dissolved; "Cabinet of Talents" formed.
• 24 Feb 1955: Baghdad Pact formed; Pakistan joins later in 1955.
• Early 1955: Sindh Chief Court rules for Tamizuddin.
• 21 Mar 1955: Federal Court reverses it (4–1; Cornelius dissents).
• 1955: Usif Patel v. Crown.
• Jul 1955: Second Constituent Assembly meets (80 members).
• Aug 1955: Ghulam Muhammad out; Mirza becomes GG; Ch. Muhammad Ali becomes PM.
• 30 Sept 1955: One Unit Act passed; takes effect 14 Oct 1955.
• 1955: First Five-Year Plan (1955–60).
• 8 Jan 1956: draft constitution published.
• 29 Feb 1956: constitution approved.
• 23 Mar 1956: 1956 Constitution enforced; Mirza becomes first President.

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⚠️ MCQ Traps

• Nazimuddin was GG first, then PM. He stepped down from GG to become PM.
• The first martial law in Pakistan was the 1953 Lahore martial law, not 1958.
• BPC Report II was rejected mainly by Punjab (West Pakistan); Report I mainly by East Pakistan.
• Bogra Formula: 50 (upper) + 300 (lower). Parity was 175 : 175 in a joint session. East Pakistan got 165 lower-house seats.
• The first direct provincial election was in Punjab (March 1951).
• The United Front was four parties: Awami Muslim League, Krishak Sramik, Nizam-e-Islam, Ganatantri Dal. It was led by Fazlul Haq, Suhrawardy and Bhashani.
• PRODA was repealed in 1954, not 1956.
• The first CA was dissolved on 24 October 1954 by Ghulam Muhammad, not Mirza.
• Tamizuddin case:
  • The Sindh Chief Court ruled for Tamizuddin.
  • The Federal Court ruled for the government (4–1). The dissent was by Justice Cornelius; the CJ was Munir.
  • The ruling was on the technical issue of Section 223-A, which lacked the GG's assent.
• Usif Patel case: the GG cannot amend the constitution by ordinance.
• The Second CA had 80 members, indirectly elected. The first had 69–75.
• One Unit was passed on 30 Sept 1955, and abolished in 1970 by Yahya Khan.
• The 1956 Constitution was passed on 29 Feb 1956 and enforced on 23 Mar 1956.
• SEATO = South East Asia Treaty Organization (1954, Manila).
• Baghdad Pact was renamed CENTO after Iraq left (1959). The USA was not a full member.

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✍️ Model Answer Outlines

Q1. "1951–58 was an era of political instability." Discuss.

1. Frequent changes of PM, and the dismissal of Nazimuddin (1953).
2. The Muslim League split into groups; intrigues and power lust.
3. Bureaucratic dominance (Ghulam Muhammad, Mirza, Ch. Muhammad Ali), military entry (Ayub as Defence Minister), and US backing.
4. Constitutional deadlock: BPC I and II rejected; the Bogra Formula never implemented.
5. Dissolution of the CA (1954), and the Tamizuddin case giving rise to the doctrine of necessity.
6. East Bengal defeat of the Muslim League (1954), and the One Unit grievances.
7. Conclusion: these problems paved the way for the 1958 martial law.

Q2. Critically examine the Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan case and its impact.

• Background (the 1954 amendments, dissolution); the Sindh Chief Court verdict.
• The Federal Court's 4–1 reversal on Section 223-A; Justice Cornelius's dissent.
• Usif Patel and the Special Reference.
• Impact: the doctrine of necessity; judicial legitimisation of later extra-constitutional acts (1958, 1977, 1999).

Q3. Evaluate the One Unit Scheme.

• Rationale: parity between the wings, administrative efficiency.
• Criticism: from East Pakistan, and fears of Punjabi domination among the smaller provinces.
• Outcome: abolished in 1970. Evaluate its role in East–West alienation.

Q4. Why did Pakistan join SEATO and CENTO? Were the pacts beneficial?

• Reasons: security threat from India, need for economic and military aid, anti-communism.
• Gains: US aid of about $500 million, modernisation of the army.
• Costs: dependency; alienation of the USSR and the non-aligned world; no real help in the 1965 and 1971 wars.

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🧠 Self-Test Questions

1. Name the Governors-General and Prime Ministers of 1951–56, with their dates.
2. Why is 1951–58 called an era of political instability?
3. Give the salient features of BPC Report II. Why did Punjab reject it?
4. What were the three demands of the 1953 anti-Ahmadi movement? What was the first martial law?
5. Why and how was Khawaja Nazimuddin dismissed?
6. Explain the Bogra Formula and how it created parity.
7. Why did the Muslim League lose the 1954 East Bengal election?
8. What amendments did the Assembly make in 1954, and why?
9. Discuss the Tamizuddin case at the Sindh Chief Court and the Federal Court. Who dissented?
10. What did the court decide in Usif Patel v. Crown?
11. How was the Second Constituent Assembly formed, and what was its party position?
12. What was the One Unit Scheme, and why was it opposed?
13. When was the 1956 Constitution passed and enforced?
14. Name the members and aims of SEATO and CENTO.
15. What was import substitution industrialisation, and how did the Korean War help Pakistan's economy?

⚡ 60-Second Revision

GGs: Ghulam Muhammad (1951–55) → Mirza (1955–56, then President) • PMs: Nazimuddin → Bogra → Ch. Muhammad Ali • Instability, bureaucrats in charge, US backing • BPC II (22 Dec 1952): Muslim head of state, 120 (60:60) + 400 (200:200), rejected by Punjab • 1953 anti-Ahmadi riots (Ahrar; 3 demands) → first martial law (Lahore) • Nazimuddin dismissed 17 Apr 1953 • Bogra Formula (7 Oct 1953): 50 + 300, 165 East, parity 175:175 • Elections: Punjab 1951 (Daultana → Noon), NWFP 1951 (Qayyum), Sindh 1953 (Pirzada → Khuhro), East Bengal 1954 (United Front ~223–228 of 309, Fazlul Haq) • 1954: PRODA repealed, Sections 9/10/10A/10B amended • 24 Oct 1954 CA dissolved; Cabinet of Talents (Ayub as Defence Minister) • Tamizuddin: Sindh Chief Court for, Federal Court against 4–1 (Munir; Cornelius dissents; Section 223-A) → doctrine of necessity • Usif Patel: no constitution-making by ordinance • Second CA: 80 members, ML 25 • One Unit 30 Sept 1955 • Constitution passed 29 Feb, enforced 23 Mar 1956 • SEATO 1954, Baghdad Pact/CENTO 1955 • Colombo Plan 1951, First Five-Year Plan 1955, ISI, Korean War boom, $500M US aid

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📚 Recommended Books (from lecture)

• Hamid Khan: Constitutional and Political History of Pakistan
• Sir Ivor Jennings: Constitutional Problems in Pakistan
• G.W. Choudhury: Constitutional Development in Pakistan
• Lawrence Ziring / Louis Hayes: Politics in Pakistan: The Struggle for Legitimacy
• Herbert Feldman: A Constitution for Pakistan
• Dr Arshad Rizvi: Political System of Pakistan: A Constitutional Study
• Hector Bolitho: Jinnah: Creator of Pakistan

Next lecture: Salient features of the 1956 Constitution, and politics up to 1958.