Political History 1988–1999 — Decade Between Two Martial Laws

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Topic: Pakistan's political history, 1988–1999 — the "decade of democracy" between two martial laws. Covers four governments (Benazir twice, Nawaz Sharif twice), all dismissed prematurely, mostly under Article 58(2)(b), ending in Musharraf's coup (Oct 1999).

CSS relevance: 🔥 Very high. Frequently tested as "Political instability 1988–99", "Role of the establishment in politics", or specific episodes (Nawaz–Kakar deal, Kargil, the sacking of four governments).

🗺️ The Four Governments at a Glance

⚠️ Pattern to remember: all four governments were removed early, and the establishment (military/presidency) had a hand in each dismissal — whether through the President's Article 58(2)(b), or ultimately a direct military takeover.

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I. Background: the Transition (1988)

• 29 May 1988: President Zia dismissed PM Junejo (installed after the 1985 non-party elections) on charges of incompetence, and called fresh elections.
• 17 August 1988: Zia died in a plane crash near Bahawalpur.
• Ghulam Ishaq Khan, then Chairman Senate, became Acting President and announced elections within 90 days.
• 16 November 1988: National Assembly elections held — contested mainly between:
  • PPP, led by Benazir Bhutto
  • Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI), a right-leaning alliance of nine parties, led by Nawaz Sharif.
• Result: PPP 92 seats, IJI 54, independents 37, others 19. Turnout ~43%.
• PPP was the single largest party, invited to form the government.
• Benazir Bhutto became the 11th PM, and the first woman to head a democratic government in a Muslim-majority country.
• MQM extended support to PPP in the NA, giving her the numbers needed.
• Nawaz Sharif won the Punjab Assembly and became CM Punjab — setting up a federal–provincial rivalry reminiscent of the Bhutto era (when NWFP had an anti-PPP government).

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II. Benazir Bhutto's First Government (1988–1990)

Political inexperience and hostility

• This was Benazir's first-ever public office; she had no prior administrative or political office experience.
• Deep mistrust between Benazir and the military establishment: senior figures (Army Chief Aslam Beg, ISI Chief Hamid Gul, and President Ghulam Ishaq Khan) were all seen as hostile to her and her family — rooted in the military's role in Bhutto's execution and fear she might seek revenge.
• This opposition substantially limited her ability to pass major legislation.

Achievements within limited space

• Released political prisoners detained under Zia.
• Restored trade unions and student associations banned under martial law.
• Lifted media censorship imposed by the military administration.

Struggles with the President

• Ghulam Ishaq Khan was openly hostile, delaying approvals of PM-recommended appointments.
• Presidential election: Benazir initially proposed Malik Qasim, but was forced to withdraw and support Ghulam Ishaq Khan as a "consensus President" instead — he had establishment backing.
• With the Army Chief, ISI Chief, President, and Punjab CM Nawaz Sharif all aligned against her, it became "one person against all odds."
• April 1989: a no-confidence motion against her was defeated by 12 votes — but this episode introduced the term "horse-trading" into Pakistani politics, with allegations that MNAs were bribed to vote against her.

Establishment dominance over security & foreign policy

• Throughout this period, the establishment controlled security issues: Afghanistan policy, Kashmir policy, and the nuclear programme were all handled by the military, with civilian oversight virtually absent.
• Parliament had very little say in these matters.

Foreign policy attempts

• Tried to build cordial relations with India, but was accused of cutting support to Sikh separatists and leaking information to the Indian PM — which put her on the defensive.
• Visited Saudi Arabia and the USA, seeking to repair relations strained during her father's era and to discuss sanctions related to the nuclear programme.

The MQM break and Karachi crisis

• 1989: MQM left the coalition, joining calls for a general strike.
• May 1990: government called in the Army to restore peace in Karachi and Hyderabad.
• Labour strikes froze the economic wheel of Karachi (Pakistan's economic hub), and the cold war with the President meant Benazir couldn't address these issues effectively.

Dismissal

• August 1990: Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed the government under Article 58(2)(b), on charges of corruption and inability to maintain law and order.
• Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (a former PPP member) was made caretaker PM, with a state of emergency declared, and elections promised within 3 months.

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III. Nawaz Sharif's First Government (1990–1993)

1990 elections

• 24 October 1990. With the establishment now against Benazir, Nawaz had a free hand.
• IJI: 105 seats; PDA (Benazir's alliance): 45 seats. (The lecture gives slightly varying figures across the transcript — note both ~104/107 for IJI and ~145 are mentioned for the PDA's broader count including provincial results; the clearest NA figures cited are IJI 105, PDA 45.)
• 6 November 1990: Nawaz Sharif elected the 12th PM, securing 153 votes.

Economic policy

• Introduced an economy based on privatisation and liberalisation — the direct opposite of Bhutto's nationalisation.
• Privatised banks and industries; legalised private money changers for foreign exchange; improved infrastructure, and spurred growth in digital telecommunications.

Friction points

1. Gulf War (1990–91): under Army Chief Aslam Beg, Pakistani forces participated in Operation Desert Storm support roles and were deployed to Saudi Arabia to protect the royal family — some friction with Nawaz over this.
2. MQM relations: MQM (dominant in urban Sindh) wanted a free hand in Sindh's urban centres, which it did not get, causing friction with both the Sindh and federal governments.
   • MQM and PPP accused Nawaz of focusing on "beautifying" Punjab and Kashmir while neglecting Sindh.
   • 1992: conflict erupted between PML-N and MQM. Nawaz's party passed a resolution to launch a paramilitary operation under Army Chief Gen. Asif Nawaz. Violence erupted in Karachi in 1992, again damaging the economy.
3. Nuclear programme: Nawaz made it a top priority, triggering a crisis with the USA, which tightened its embargo (following Pressler Amendment sanctions after Dec 1990), demanding Pakistan halt uranium enrichment. This hurt economic aid and deepened economic troubles, compounded by the Karachi unrest.

Clash with President Ghulam Ishaq Khan

• Serious rift developed; on 18 April 1993, Ghulam Ishaq Khan used Article 58(2)(b) to dissolve the National Assembly, appointing Balakh Sher Mazari as interim PM.

Supreme Court restoration — a landmark case

• Nawaz challenged the dissolution in the Supreme Court.
• 26 May 1993: the Supreme Court ruled 10–1 that:
  • the presidential order was unconstitutional
  • the President could dissolve the Assembly only if there had been a genuine constitutional breakdown
  • allegations of incompetence or corruption were irrelevant grounds for dissolution under 58(2)(b).
• Nawaz Sharif's government was restored.

Resignation under pressure

• Despite the restoration, the power struggle with the establishment continued.
• July 1993: under heavy establishment pressure, Nawaz agreed to resign, but only if President Ghulam Ishaq Khan resigned too — a deal was struck, and both stepped down simultaneously.
• An interim/transitional government was formed, with fresh elections held on 6 October 1993.

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IV. Benazir Bhutto's Second Government (1993–1996)

1993 elections

• PPP: 86 seats; PML-N: 72 seats. Benazir became PM for the second time.
• 13 November 1993: Farooq Leghari (a PPP leader) was elected the 8th President — Benazir trusted him as a loyal party man who would never use 58(2)(b) against her.

A stronger start

• Unlike her first term, Benazir now had more administrative experience and better civil–military rapport.
• PPP governed in Sindh, NWFP (with ANP) and Punjab (coalition with PML-Junejo and Manzoor Wattoo) — unlike her first term, when Nawaz's Punjab government had destabilised her.
• Better relations with the Army under Gen. Abdul Waheed Kakar; ISI's Javed Ashraf Qazi provided a conduit between the Army Chief and the PM.

Deterioration

• Government stability suffered from:
  • economic mismanagement
  • growing ethno-sectarian violence (Karachi again)
  • increasing deadlock with the opposition (PML-N)
  • antagonising the upper judiciary
  • conflict with the press.
• Army Chief Jahangir Karamat, previously neutral, grew concerned about the deteriorating economy and law-and-order — the "one against all" dynamic re-emerged, this time between Benazir and the establishment despite her own choice of President.

The Murtaza Bhutto assassination — the final blow

• September 1996: Murtaza Bhutto (Benazir's brother) was assassinated in Karachi.
• This was "the last nail in the coffin" of the government: senior military officials lost confidence in the government's competence and backed President Leghari in the brewing conflict.

Dismissal

• 5 November 1996: President Farooq Leghari — Benazir's own nominee — dismissed her government using Article 58(2)(b), appointing Meraj Khalid as caretaker PM.
• Benazir challenged this in the Supreme Court, expecting a repeat of the 1993 Nawaz ruling, but this time the Supreme Court ruled against her, upholding Leghari's action.

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V. Nawaz Sharif's Second Government (1997–1999)

1997 elections

• 3 February 1997. PML-N: 137 seats. With PPP reduced to just 18 seats in opposition, Nawaz secured a two-thirds majority.
• 17 February 1997: Nawaz Sharif became PM for the second time.

The MQM alliance and its collapse

• Formed an alliance with MQM, which fell apart after the assassination of Hakim Saeed (Karachi, 1998).
• Nawaz then removed MQM from Parliament and took control of Karachi, forcing MQM underground.
• With governments in Sindh, Balochistan, NWFP, and Punjab, plus the federal government, Nawaz claimed an "exclusive mandate" and emerged as the most powerful elected PM of the period.

Constitutional moves to entrench power

• 13th Amendment: removed Article 58(2)(b), stripping the President of the power to dismiss the PM/dissolve the Assembly at discretion.
• 14th Amendment: introduced an anti-defection (floor-crossing) clause, disqualifying MPs who voted against their party.
• After Farooq Leghari's term ended, Nawaz installed the hand-picked Rafiq Tarar as President (without 58(2)(b) powers).
• Nawaz believed he had "removed all the thorns from his path" to complete a full 5-year term.

The 1998 nuclear tests

• 28 May 1998: Pakistan conducted its first nuclear weapon tests, in response to India's tests earlier that month. Nawaz's popularity peaked.
• Western countries suspended foreign aid; sanctions hit foreign currency reserves and the economy.

Positive achievements of this period

• Built the M2 Motorway.
• Improved ties with the Muslim world (Saudi Arabia, UAE), visited China, and improved relations with the European Union; some trade improvement.
• 1998–99: Composite Dialogue with India began.
  • 19 February 1999: Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee visited Lahore (the Lahore Declaration), issuing a joint communique aiming to build an environment of peace and security, and resolve bilateral disputes.

Rift with the military

• Initially excellent relations with the armed forces, but relations soured when Army Chief Gen. Jahangir Karamat advocated for a National Security Council (with a formal military role in governance).
  • Nawaz opposed this, fearing it would give the military an upper hand over civilian administration.
  • October 1998, three months before his term ended: Karamat was forced to resign.
  • Nawaz promoted Gen. Pervez Musharraf to replace him.

Kargil & the final rupture

• Kargil conflict turned public opinion against Nawaz; the military blamed him for the fallout of the conflict, and tensions with Musharraf reached breaking point.
• 12 October 1999: Nawaz attempted to remove Musharraf (who was returning from Sri Lanka) and replace him with Gen. Ziauddin Butt.
• Musharraf's plane was denied landing at Karachi airport; in the ensuing crisis, the Army took over the country, and Nawaz Sharif's government was ousted.

Aftermath

• Nawaz was taken to Attock Fort for trial by a military-appointed judge, facing charges including kidnapping, attempted murder, hijacking, terrorism and corruption.
• Convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment in a speedy trial.
• Under a Saudi-brokered agreement, Nawaz was sent into exile for 10 years, agreeing not to participate in Pakistani politics, and relocated to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
• Musharraf assumed control as Chief Executive, imposing martial law.

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🧭 Summary: Themes of 1988–1999

1. Political instability

• Four governments, none completed its term.
• Each was removed on similar recurring charges: corruption, inefficiency, inability to control the economy/law and order.
• No government achieved a stable single-party majority for long; most were coalitions, vulnerable to small parties switching sides, often encouraged by the establishment.

2. Political polarisation

• Deep, mutual hostility between PPP and PML-N — each used every tool available to destabilise the other when out of power (long marches, train marches, etc.).
• Karachi/MQM was a recurring flashpoint: repeated operations, violence, and economic damage from unrest.
• Terrorism, partly an overflow from the Afghan war, also contributed to instability.

3. Establishment dominance

• The military remained in the driving seat on security and foreign policy even after Zia's death — Afghanistan, Kashmir, US relations and the nuclear programme were essentially military-controlled domains, with little parliamentary oversight.
• Widespread talk of "political engineering", ISI's role, and funding of political alliances (Benazir herself coined the term "engineered elections").
• Article 58(2)(b), added by the 8th Amendment, was the establishment's chief weapon, used to dismiss three of the four governments (Benazir I, Nawaz I — later restored, Benazir II) before being repealed by the 13th Amendment (1997).

4. From one martial law to another

• This decade of democracy began with the end of Zia's martial law (1988) and ended with the start of Musharraf's (1999) — a full-circle failure of the political class to learn from repeated cycles of polarisation, instability, and establishment intervention.

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📊 Key Figures at a Glance

🗓️ Timeline

• 29 May 1988: Junejo dismissed.
• 17 Aug 1988: Zia dies; Ghulam Ishaq Khan acting President.
• 16 Nov 1988: general election; PPP wins.
• 2 Dec 1988: Benazir Bhutto becomes PM.
• Apr 1989: no-confidence motion against Benazir fails by 12 votes.
• May 1990: army deployed in Karachi/Hyderabad.
• Aug 1990: Benazir's first government dismissed.
• 24 Oct 1990: general election; IJI wins.
• 6 Nov 1990: Nawaz Sharif becomes PM.
• 1992: PML-N–MQM conflict; Karachi operation.
• 18 Apr 1993: Nawaz's government dissolved by Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
• 26 May 1993: Supreme Court restores Nawaz's government.
• Jul 1993: Nawaz and Ghulam Ishaq Khan both resign.
• 6 Oct 1993: general election; PPP wins.
• 13 Nov 1993: Farooq Leghari becomes President.
• Sept 1996: Murtaza Bhutto assassinated.
• 5 Nov 1996: Benazir's second government dismissed.
• 3 Feb 1997: general election; PML-N wins landslide.
• 17 Feb 1997: Nawaz Sharif becomes PM (2nd term).
• 1997: 13th Amendment (removes 58(2)(b)); 14th Amendment (anti-defection).
• 1998: Hakim Saeed assassinated; MQM sidelined.
• 28 May 1998: Pakistan's nuclear tests.
• Oct 1998: Karamat resigns; Musharraf appointed Army Chief.
• 19 Feb 1999: Vajpayee's Lahore visit; Lahore Declaration.
• 12 Oct 1999: Musharraf's coup; Nawaz's government ousted.

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⚠️ MCQ Traps

• Four governments between 1988–99: Benazir (x2), Nawaz (x2) — none completed its term.
• Benazir Bhutto was the 11th PM, and the first woman to head a democratic government in a Muslim-majority country.
• The 1989 no-confidence motion against Benazir failed by 12 votes — this episode coined the term "horse-trading."
• Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed two governments (Benazir I in 1990, Nawaz I in 1993); Farooq Leghari dismissed one (Benazir II in 1996) — despite being her own party's nominee.
• The Supreme Court restored Nawaz's first government (26 May 1993, 10–1) but he still resigned about six weeks later under establishment pressure — along with Ghulam Ishaq Khan.
• 13th Amendment (1997) removed Article 58(2)(b); 14th Amendment (1997) added the anti-floor-crossing clause.
• Pakistan's first nuclear tests were on 28 May 1998, at Chagai, in response to India's tests earlier that month.
• The National Security Council dispute with Gen. Jahangir Karamat led to his resignation in October 1998, after which Musharraf was appointed Army Chief.
• Musharraf's coup was triggered by Nawaz's attempt to replace him with Gen. Ziauddin Butt on 12 October 1999.
• Nawaz was tried by a military court, convicted, and sent into 10-year exile in Saudi Arabia under a Saudi-brokered deal.

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✍️ Model Answer Outline

Q. "1988–1999 was an era of political instability and establishment dominance." Discuss.

1. Introduction: the decade began with the restoration of democracy after Zia's death and ended with Musharraf's coup; four governments, none completed a term.
2. Benazir I (1988–90): inexperience, military/presidential hostility, limited legislative space, MQM crisis, dismissal under 58(2)(b).
3. Nawaz I (1990–93): privatisation policy, MQM and nuclear-related friction, dissolution and SC restoration, forced resignation.
4. Benazir II (1993–96): stronger start, but economic mismanagement, ethnic violence, Murtaza's assassination, dismissal by her own nominee.
5. Nawaz II (1997–99): landslide mandate, 13th/14th Amendments, nuclear tests, Kargil, NSC dispute, coup.
6. Themes: political instability, polarisation between PPP and PML-N, establishment's use of 58(2)(b) and "political engineering," military control over security/foreign policy.
7. Conclusion: a full-circle decade, from the end of one martial law to the start of another — a missed opportunity to consolidate parliamentary democracy.

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🧠 Self-Test Questions

1. How did Benazir Bhutto become PM in 1988, and what challenges did she face from the establishment?
2. What was the "horse-trading" episode of 1989?
3. On what grounds was Benazir's first government dismissed in 1990?
4. What economic policies did Nawaz Sharif pursue in his first term, and how did they differ from Bhutto's?
5. Explain the Supreme Court's landmark 1993 ruling restoring Nawaz Sharif's government. Why did he resign anyway?
6. Why did Benazir Bhutto appoint Farooq Leghari as President, and how did this backfire?
7. What role did the assassination of Murtaza Bhutto play in the fall of Benazir's second government?
8. What were the 13th and 14th Amendments, and why were they significant?
9. What caused the rift between Nawaz Sharif and Gen. Jahangir Karamat?
10. Describe the events of 12 October 1999 leading to Musharraf's coup.
11. What role did the establishment/military play throughout this period, even outside direct dismissals?

⚡ 60-Second Revision

1988: Zia dies (17 Aug) → Ghulam Ishaq Khan acting President → election (PPP 92, IJI 54) → Benazir I PM (2 Dec) • Benazir I: inexperienced, hostile military/President (Beg, Hamid Gul, GIK), no-confidence fails by 12 votes (1989, "horse-trading"), MQM leaves, Karachi operation 1990, dismissed Aug 1990 (58(2)(b)) • Nawaz I: election 1990 (IJI ~105, PDA 45), PM 6 Nov (153 votes), privatisation/liberalisation, Gulf War, MQM friction, nuclear crisis with US, dissolved 18 Apr 1993 by GIK, SC restores 26 May 1993 (10–1), resigns Jul 1993 with GIK • Benazir II: election 1993 (PPP 86, PML-N 72), PM again, Leghari President (own nominee), better civil–military start, but economic mismanagement + ethnic violence + Murtaza's assassination (Sept 1996) → dismissed 5 Nov 1996 (58(2)(b)) by Leghari; SC upholds this time • Nawaz II: landslide 1997 (PML-N 137, PPP 18), 13th Amendment removes 58(2)(b), 14th Amendment bans floor-crossing, Rafiq Tarar as President, nuclear tests 28 May 1998, MQM sidelined after Hakim Saeed's murder, motorway/foreign ties improve, Lahore Declaration Feb 1999, Karamat forced out over NSC dispute (Oct 1998) → Musharraf Army Chief → Kargil fallout → 12 Oct 1999 coup, Nawaz tried, exiled to Saudi Arabia for 10 years • Themes: instability (4 govts, none complete), PPP–PML-N polarisation, establishment/58(2)(b) dominance, military control of security/foreign policy, decade bookended by two martial laws

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Next lecture: the Musharraf Era (1999–2008).