Indian National Congress (1885–1947)

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Topic: The Indian National Congress (1885–1947) — Lecture 12 of the Pakistan Affairs series. Covers its founding, charter, early policy spheres, the Moderate-Extremist split, its major movements (Swadeshi, Home Rule, Non-Cooperation/Khilafat, Civil Disobedience/Dandi March, Quit India), its relationship with the Muslim League across distinct phases, and its post-independence role in India.

CSS relevance: 🔥 Extremely high — Congress's history is foundational background for virtually every subsequent Pakistan Movement topic; its shifting relationship with the Muslim League (phase-by-phase) is a frequently asked comparative question.

Overview

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I. Founding

• Established 28 December 1885, in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attendance — of whom only 2 were Muslim; the rest were Hindu or British.
• Umesh Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was elected the first President; Allan Octavian Hume became the first General Secretary.
• A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant (formerly with the East India Company/British administration), was the driving force behind Congress's actual establishment, believing India needed an organised political platform to secure people's political rights — he is often referred to as the "Father of the Indian National Congress."
• Most of the founding members were inspired by and had fallen under the influence of Dadabhai Naoroji, who was in England at the time and served as the first Indian member of the British Parliament (1892–1895) — providing guidance and patronage to Congress's founders.
  • Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah also received his early political training under Dadabhai Naoroji.

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II. Charter & Early Policy Spheres (1885–1905)

The founding charter — four objectives

1. Promote friendly relations between nationalist political workers from different parts of the country.
2. Develop and consolidate a feeling of national unity, irrespective of caste, religion, and province — reflecting Congress's founding aspiration to homogenise a multi-lingual, multi-religious country under a concept of Indian nationalism.
3. Formulate popular demands and present them before the government.
4. Train and organise public opinion in the country — channelling the genuine "voice of the people" to the British government.

Four policy spheres (1885–1905, up to the Partition of Bengal)

1. Civil rights: freedom of speech and the press, and the right to organise processions, meetings, and similar rights.
2. Administrative reforms: urging the government to remove administrative abuses and pursue public welfare measures; emphasis on the appointment of Indians in government service via competitive examinations; proposals to open agricultural banks for peasants' relief; raising protest against discriminatory laws.
3. Constitutional reforms: demanded an increase in the powers of the Legislative Council (see the dedicated Indian Councils Act notes), specifically to include elected Indian representatives — a demand the British largely ignored, though it shaped the modest expansion seen in the 1892 Indian Councils Act.
4. Economic policy: Congress blamed British economic policy for rising prices and other economic distress affecting ordinary Indians, rooted in the extractive colonial pattern — raw materials taken to England, finished goods sold back in India. This grievance eventually fed into the Swadeshi Movement (see below), promoting local products and boycotting British goods.

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III. The 1907 Split: Moderates vs Extremists

• By 1907, Congress split into two factions:
  • Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who sought Dominion Status for India (the status already granted to Canada, Australia, South Africa, and others — remaining under the British Crown, but with self-governing, indigenous administration).
  • The militant/"Extremist" faction, under Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who demanded Swaraj (self-rule) — a fully separate, independent India, outside the Crown's control entirely, rather than Dominion Status.

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IV. Jinnah & Gandhi's Roles in Congress

• Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined Congress in 1906, aligning with its Moderate wing, which believed in Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Mahatma Gandhi joined Congress in 1915, after returning from South Africa at the invitation of Gopal Krishna Gokhale (then Congress President).
• By 1930, Congress had declared that the sole goal of the freedom movement would be "Purna Swaraj" (complete independence); 26 January 1930 was declared "Purna Swaraj Day."
  • (Note: 26 January was later adopted as India's Republic Day, precisely because of this 1930 declaration.)

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V. Major Movements Launched from the Congress Platform

1. Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911)

• A direct consequence of Lord Curzon's announcement of the Partition of Bengal (1905), justified on the grounds that Bengal's population was too large to govern effectively as a single unit.
• Congress launched the Swadeshi Movement, involving a boycott of British goods and promotion of local/domestic products, intended to inflict economic pain on Britain until the partition was reversed.
• Ultimately successful: the Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, ending the movement — Congress's first major successful mass campaign.

2. Home Rule Movement (1916–1918)

• Led by the radical/Extremist wing — Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant launched this movement in 1916, running for roughly 2–3 years.
• Purpose: to achieve self-rule (Home Rule) for India within the British Empire framework.

3. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) — Gandhi's first movement

• Gandhi's first act of civil disobedience after joining Congress; centred on Bihar (Champaran), addressing the plight of indigo farmers subject to oppressive regulations and high taxes imposed by landlords.
• Followed by protests at Ahmedabad and Kheda — together, these three campaigns (Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda) mark Gandhi's introduction of non-violent Satyagraha as a method within the Indian freedom struggle.

4. The Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh (1919)

• 1919: the "Rowlatt Act" (formally the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919) was passed, curtailing Indian civil liberties and press freedom, and allowing detention without trial for up to two years for those suspected of terrorism-related offences.
• Nationwide protests followed; Congress participated actively, and Gandhi launched a non-violent Satyagraha against the Act in 1919.
• This unrest culminated in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, April 1919 (commonly dated 13 April 1919), a defining tragedy of the independence movement.

5. Khilafat Movement & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922)

• 1920: the Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement began together.
• Background: after World War I, the defeated Ottoman Empire's caliphate (Khilafat) was under threat of abolition; Indian Muslims launched the Khilafat Movement to protect the Ottoman Caliphate.
• Congress, and Gandhi personally, joined this movement, aligning it with the broader Non-Cooperation Movement against British rule — a rare period of close Hindu-Muslim political cooperation (see Section VII).
• The Chauri Chaura incident (February 1922): a clash between police and protesters turned violent; a mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen.
• Gandhi, committed to non-violence, immediately called off the Non-Cooperation Movement, and Congress formally disassociated itself from the Khilafat Movement, citing the violence as incompatible with his principles.

6. Civil Disobedience Movement / Salt March (1930)

• Launched by Congress in 1930, protesting British regulations on salt manufacturing, which banned Indians from producing their own salt.
• Widely known as the Salt March, the Dandi March, or the Dandi Satyagraha — named for Dandi, in Gujarat, where Gandhi and his followers marched to the sea to produce salt illegally in defiance of the law, in solidarity with Gujarati salt traders/producers directly affected.
• A large-scale movement: roughly 60,000 people were detained.
• Gandhi's arrest during this period meant he did not attend the First Round Table Conference; Congress boycotted it in protest.
• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact followed, resulting in Gandhi's release, after which he attended the Second Round Table Conference.

7. Individual protests (from 1940)

• 1940: Congress ministries resigned (in protest at India being drawn into World War II without Indian consent/consultation), followed by a series of individual protests, involving figures including Nehru and Gandhi.

8. Quit India Movement (1942)

• Triggered when the Cripps Mission (1942) arrived in India but failed to offer any concrete promise of self-government/dominion status satisfactory to Indian demands.
• Congress launched the Quit India Movement, demanding the British leave India immediately and hand over administration to Indians.
• Outcome: Congress was declared an unlawful association; its offices were shut down, and its leadership was arrested.

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VI. The Road to 1947

• 1935: Government of India Act passed; enforced from 1937, dividing India into 11 provinces: Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh.
• 1937 provincial elections: Congress formed governments in 8 of the 11 provinces — succeeding in the Hindu-majority provinces, but failing to form governments in Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh.
• Congress provincial rule lasted until 1939, when ministries resigned at the start of World War II.
• Britain promised independence if the war was won, with Indian support; when the war ended in 1945, Britain moved to fulfil that promise.
• Quit India Movement prisoners were released, and India achieved independence in 1947 — emerging as two independent states, India and Pakistan.
• The lecturer notes that the Muslim League's specific contribution to independence is covered in a separate, subsequent lecture.

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VII. Congress–Muslim League Relations: Five Phases

"Honeymoon period" (1916–1928): the Lucknow Pact (Congress-League agreement on constitutional reform and communal representation) and the joint Khilafat Movement campaign are the defining events of this cordial phase — a useful contrast point for essay questions on why relations later deteriorated.

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VIII. Post-Independence Role

• After independence, Congress became India's dominant political party.
• 1952: India's first general election — Congress won an overwhelming landslide victory, forming the government.
• Congress remained in power continuously until 1977, when it was defeated, and the Janata Party formed a government — the first non-Congress government in independent India's history.

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Further Reading (References Cited in the Lecture)

• S.R. Mehrotra, The Origin of the Indian National Congress: A Case Study of Cross-Cultural Synthesis (the lecturer refers to this as "Tavis Hess" — likely a mis-transcription; verify author/title against standard catalogues)
• Z.H. Zaidi, The Encyclopaedia of the Indian National Congress
• M.K. Singh, Encyclopaedia of Indian War of Independence
• The Making of the National Movement, 1857–1947 (National Council of Educational Research and Training, NCERT)
• Kritika Singh, Indian National Congress from 1885 till 2017
• Sir William Wedderburn, Allan Octavian Hume: Father of the Indian National Congress
• Pattabhi Sitaramayya, History of the Indian National Congress
• Richard Sisson & Stanley A. Wolpert (eds.), Congress and Indian Nationalism: The Pre-Independence Phase

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Key Figures at a Glance

MCQ Traps

• Only 2 of the 72 founding delegates (1885) were Muslim — a frequently tested statistic underscoring Congress's early composition.
• A.O. Hume, not W.C. Banerjee, is regarded as the driving force/"Father" of Congress, despite Banerjee being its first President — a commonly confused pair.
• Jinnah joined Congress in 1906 (aligned with the Moderates); Gandhi joined in 1915 — a 9-year gap frequently tested in sequencing questions.
• The 1907 split is between Moderates (Gokhale, Dominion Status) and Extremists (Tilak, Swaraj/full self-rule) — don't confuse "Dominion Status" with full independence; they are distinct constitutional goals.
• The Swadeshi Movement (1905–11) is tied to the Partition of Bengal; the Home Rule Movement (1916–18) is a separate, later campaign led by Tilak and Annie Besant — don't conflate the two.
• Chauri Chaura (Feb 1922) caused Gandhi to suspend the Non-Cooperation Movement AND disassociate Congress from the Khilafat Movement — both consequences are commonly tested together.
• Congress formed governments in 8 of 11 provinces after the 1937 elections — failing specifically in Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh (all Muslim-majority provinces) — a key data point for questions on Muslim political consolidation.
• The Congress–Muslim League relationship moved through five distinct phases (1906–11 strained, 1916–28 cordial, 1928–35 strained, 1937–39 strained, 1940–47 strained) — essay answers should reflect this non-linear relationship, not assume constant hostility.
• 26 January 1930 ("Purna Swaraj Day") is the direct historical origin of India's Republic Day, observed on the same date.

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Model Answer Outline

Q. Discuss the establishment, objectives, and major movements of the Indian National Congress, and trace its evolving relationship with the Muslim League.

1. Introduction: founding (1885), key founders, and the influence of Dadabhai Naoroji.
2. Charter and early policy (1885–1905): civil rights, administrative and constitutional reform, economic policy.
3. The 1907 split: Moderates vs Extremists, and its implications.
4. Major movements: Swadeshi, Home Rule, Champaran/Kheda/Ahmedabad, the Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh, Khilafat/Non-Cooperation (and its collapse after Chauri Chaura), Civil Disobedience/Dandi March, Quit India.
5. Relationship with the Muslim League: the five distinct phases, with emphasis on the 1916–28 "honeymoon" and the sharp break from 1940 onward.
6. Post-independence role: Congress's dominance in Indian politics until 1977.
7. Conclusion: Congress played the central role in the independence movement, but its inability to accommodate Muslim political demands — most starkly visible in the language, provincial-government, and separate-homeland disputes — directly shaped the subcontinent's eventual partition.

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Self-Test Questions

1. Who founded the Indian National Congress, and what was A.O. Hume's role?
2. What were the four objectives of Congress's founding charter?
3. Describe the four spheres of Congress policy between 1885 and 1905.
4. Explain the 1907 split between Moderates and Extremists.
5. When did Jinnah and Gandhi respectively join Congress, and with which wing did each align?
6. What triggered the Swadeshi Movement, and how did it end?
7. Describe the causes and outcome of the Khilafat/Non-Cooperation Movement, including the Chauri Chaura incident.
8. What was the Salt March/Dandi March, and why is it significant?
9. Why did Congress fail to form governments in Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh after the 1937 elections?
10. Trace the five phases of Congress–Muslim League relations from 1906 to 1947.

60-Second Revision

Founded 28 Dec 1885, Bombay, 72 delegates (only 2 Muslim); 1st President W.C. Banerjee, 1st Gen. Secretary A.O. Hume (true driving force, "Father of Congress"); founders inspired by Dadabhai Naoroji (1st Indian MP, UK Parliament, 1892-95; also trained young Jinnah) • Charter: friendly relations among nationalists, national unity across caste/religion/province, formulate popular demands, train public opinion • Policy 1885-1905: civil rights (speech/press/assembly), administrative reform (Indian appointments via exam, agricultural banks), constitutional reform (elected representatives, feeding into the 1892 Councils Act), economic policy (anti-colonial extraction, → Swadeshi) • 1907 split: Moderates (Gokhale, Dominion Status) vs Extremists (Tilak, full Swaraj) • Jinnah joins 1906 (Moderate wing); Gandhi joins 1915 (from South Africa, at Gokhale's invite) • 1930: Purna Swaraj declared, 26 Jan = Purna Swaraj Day (later India's Republic Day) • Movements: Swadeshi 1905-11 (vs Bengal Partition, ends when partition annulled 1911); Home Rule 1916-18 (Tilak + Annie Besant); Champaran Satyagraha 1917 (Gandhi's first, + Ahmedabad + Kheda); Rowlatt Act 1919 → Jallianwala Bagh (Apr 1919); Khilafat + Non-Cooperation 1920-22 (protect Ottoman Caliphate) → Chauri Chaura Feb 1922 (22 police killed) → Gandhi ends both movements; Civil Disobedience/Salt/Dandi March 1930 (~60,000 detained, Gandhi arrested, misses 1st RTC, Gandhi-Irwin Pact → attends 2nd RTC); 1940 individual protests (WWII without consent); Quit India 1942 (after Cripps Mission fails) → Congress banned, leaders arrested • 1935 Act → 1937 elections (11 provinces) → Congress wins 8/11 (not Bengal/Punjab/Sindh) → resigns 1939 (WWII) → WWII ends 1945 → independence 1947 • Congress-League relations: 1906-11 strained (Bengal partition) → 1916-28 cordial/"honeymoon" (Lucknow Pact, joint Khilafat) → 1928-35 strained (Nehru Report, 14 Points, RTCs, Communal Award) → 1937-39 strained (Congress rule "atrocities" on Muslims) → 1940-47 strained (Lahore Resolution 1940, separate homeland vs united India) • Post-1947: dominant party, landslide in 1952 election, rules until defeated in 1977 (Janata Party)

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Next lecture (per the series): the Partition of Bengal — its causes and consequences.