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XXI. Pakistan's Relations with Neighbors (Excluding India)

📂 START HERE — How This Page Is Organised

No child pages here — read the sections below in order, then the past-paper MCQs at the end.

  • No subjective question on this chapter alone — CPEC questions are on III; Afghanistan on XXIV.

📺 Directly Relevant YouTube Lecture Sources

📌 Topic Contents

  1. 📖 Afghanistan
  2. 📖 China
  3. 📖 Iran
  4. 📖 Central Asian Republics
  5. 📖 Updates (2024–2026)
  6. 📖 Argument Bank
  7. 📖 Answer Outline (20 marks, for a "neighbours" question)
  8. 📖 Exam angle
  9. 📖 ✍️ Model Answer (20 marks)
  10. 📖 Outline
  11. 📖 1. Introduction
  12. 📖 2. China: The All-Weather Partner
  13. 📖 3. Iran: Cooperation Amid Complexity
  14. 📖 4. Afghanistan: From Hope to Hostility
  15. 📖 5. Central Asian Republics
  16. 📖 6. Common Challenges
  17. 📖 7. Way Forward
  18. 📖 8. Conclusion

Exam focus: argue with relevant evidence, distinguish fact from interpretation and conclude on the question asked.

Afghanistan

  • Deep historical, ethnic (Pashtun), and religious ties; but relationship troubled by Durand Line dispute (Afghanistan has never formally recognized it)
  • Decades of hosting Afghan refugees (since 1979 Soviet invasion) — among world's largest protracted refugee situations
  • Post-2021 Taliban takeover — Pakistan initially hopeful, now strained over TTP safe havens, trade route closures, deportation of Afghan refugees (2023 onward)

China

  • "All-weather strategic cooperative partnership" — closest, most stable bilateral relationship
  • CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, launched 2015, ~$62bn) — flagship BRI project: infrastructure, energy, Gwadar port
  • Security cooperation — joint military exercises, defence equipment (JF-17 Thunder jointly developed)
  • Concerns: debt sustainability, security of Chinese nationals working on CPEC (targeted by BLA attacks)

Iran

  • Shared border (Balochistan), cultural/religious ties (though sectarian friction exists)
  • Tensions over cross-border militancy — mutual accusations of harboring militants; brief Jan 2024 tit-for-tat airstrikes (Pakistan-Iran) — quickly de-escalated diplomatically
  • Economic cooperation limited by US sanctions on Iran (constrains gas pipeline project — IP gas pipeline stalled for years)

Central Asian Republics

  • Growing interest in connectivity (CASA-1000 electricity project, TAPI gas pipeline — both stalled/slow due to Afghan instability)
  • Limited direct trade so far; Afghanistan as the missing link

Updates (2024–2026)

  • China: attacks on Chinese nationals (Besham, March 2024; Karachi airport, October 2024) strained ties and prompted demands for joint security arrangements; CPEC 2.0 focus on SEZs, agriculture, IT and minerals; Chinese platforms proved themselves in the May 2025 conflict; China mediated Pakistan–Afghanistan talks (Urumqi, April 2026).
  • Iran: January 2024 tit-for-tat strikes, then President Raisi's visit (April 2024). In the 2026 Iran war Pakistan condemned attacks on Iran, stayed out militarily and mediated the US–Iran ceasefire (Islamabad Talks, April 2026) — while balancing its Saudi defence pact. The IP gas pipeline remains stalled under sanctions, with the risk of arbitration penalties.
  • Afghanistan: open conflict in October 2025 and February 2026 (see XXIV).
  • Central Asia: Uzbekistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan railway framework agreement (2025); growing Uzbek and Kazakh trade via transit routes; connectivity held back by Afghan instability.

Argument Bank

  • China:
    • strategic convergence (balancing India and US policy)
    • economic lifeline: CPEC, loans
    • defence: about 80% of Pakistan's arms imports
    • diplomatic cover: UNSC, FATF
    • irritants: security of Chinese workers, slow CPEC, dues to Chinese IPPs
  • Iran:
    • positives: border trade, energy, shared culture
    • irritants: border militancy (Jaish al-Adl, BLA), sectarian perceptions, the Saudi factor, US sanctions, India's Chabahar link
  • Afghanistan: Durand Line, TTP, refugees, trade and transit, Indian influence
  • Central Asia: energy (CASA-1000, TAPI), trade via Gwadar and Karachi, SCO and ECO

Answer Outline (20 marks, for a "neighbours" question)

  1. Introduction — "a peaceful neighbourhood" as Jinnah's stated aim.
  2. China — pillars, CPEC, irritants, outlook.
  3. Iran — cooperation, irritants, 2026 war and mediation.
  4. Afghanistan — security, refugees, trade, conflict.
  5. Central Asia — connectivity.
  6. Common challenges — security, economy, great-power rivalry.
  7. Way forward — neighbourhood-first policy, trade, border management, regional forums.
  8. Conclusion.

Exam angle

  • Name each neighbour's main tension point explicitly:
    • Afghanistan — Durand Line, TTP
    • China — debt, security of workers
    • Iran — sectarian perceptions, US sanctions

✍️ Model Answer (20 marks)

Question: Discuss Pakistan's relations with its neighbours (excluding India): China, Iran, Afghanistan and the Central Asian Republics. Suggest measures for a peaceful neighbourhood.

Outline

  1. Introduction
  2. China
  3. Iran
  4. Afghanistan
  5. Central Asian Republics
  6. Common challenges
  7. Way forward
  8. Conclusion

1. Introduction

  • The Quaid wanted Pakistan at peace with its neighbours.
  • Geography makes it essential — security, energy and trade all depend on stable borders.
  • A mixed picture:
    • China — an unshakeable partnership
    • Iran — complex but cooperative
    • Afghanistan — turned into open conflict
    • Central Asia — untapped potential

2. China: The All-Weather Partner

Pillars

  • Strategic convergence: shared concerns about India and the US.
  • CPEC (2015): the flagship of the Belt and Road, with investment of about $62 billion in energy, roads and Gwadar.
  • Defence: the largest source of Pakistan's arms (JF-17, J-10C, submarines); Chinese systems performed strongly in the May 2025 conflict.
  • Diplomatic support at the UN Security Council and FATF.

Irritants

  • Attacks on Chinese nationals (Dasu 2021, Besham and Karachi 2024).
  • Slow CPEC progress and payments owed to Chinese power producers.

Outlook: CPEC 2.0 (SEZs, agriculture, IT, minerals); China as mediator between Pakistan and Afghanistan (Urumqi talks, April 2026).

3. Iran: Cooperation Amid Complexity

Positives: shared history and culture, a 900 km border, border trade and electricity supply to Balochistan.

Irritants

  • Militancy along the border (Jaish al-Adl, Baloch groups), which led to the tit-for-tat strikes of January 2024.
  • The Saudi factor and sectarian perceptions.
  • US sanctions blocking the Iran–Pakistan gas pipeline, with the risk of arbitration penalties.
  • Iran's partnership with India at Chabahar.

The 2026 Iran war: Pakistan condemned attacks on Iran, refused a military role, mediated the US–Iran ceasefire (8 April 2026) and hosted the Islamabad Talks, while balancing its defence pact with Saudi Arabia.

4. Afghanistan: From Hope to Hostility

  • Historic ties of faith, ethnicity and trade; Pakistan hosted millions of refugees for over four decades.
  • Irritants: the Durand Line (never recognised by Kabul); TTP sanctuaries; refugee repatriation since 2023; trade and transit closures.
  • Conflict: clashes in October 2025 (ceasefire in Doha) and February 2026, when Pakistan struck targets in Kabul and Kandahar; talks in Istanbul and Urumqi have not produced a lasting settlement.
  • Shifts: India and Russia have deepened ties with the Taliban government.

5. Central Asian Republics

  • Interests: energy (CASA-1000 electricity, TAPI gas pipeline), trade through Karachi and Gwadar, SCO and ECO cooperation.
  • Progress: the Uzbekistan–Afghanistan–Pakistan railway framework (2025); transit trade with Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
  • Obstacle: Afghanistan is the missing link; instability blocks the land route.

6. Common Challenges

  • Security threats crossing borders.
  • Great-power rivalry (US–China, US–Iran).
  • Pakistan's limited economic capacity.
  • Weak border management and informal trade.

7. Way Forward

  1. China: protect Chinese nationals and projects; focus CPEC 2.0 on industry and exports; settle power-sector dues.
  2. Iran: a joint border security mechanism; expand barter and border trade; continue mediation while avoiding entanglement.
  3. Afghanistan: a two-track policy of firm action against the TTP plus dialogue; a multilateral verification mechanism with China, Qatar, Turkey and Saudi Arabia; orderly refugee policy; use trade as an incentive.
  4. Central Asia: push the railway and energy projects; use Gwadar as Central Asia's port.
  5. Regional forums: SCO, ECO and trilaterals with China.

8. Conclusion

Pakistan's neighbourhood holds both its greatest opportunities and its most pressing threats. China remains the anchor, Iran a partner requiring careful balance, Afghanistan the most urgent challenge, and Central Asia the most promising economic frontier. A "neighbourhood first" policy that combines security with trade and connectivity would turn Pakistan's borders from lines of conflict into corridors of cooperation.

📝 CSS Past Papers 2014–2026 — This Chapter (Solved)

📊

Asked so far: no subjective question has been set on this chapter alone, because CPEC questions are filed under III and Afghanistan under XXIV · 10 MCQs (2014, 2017 ×2, 2021, 2023, 2024 ×2, 2025 ×2, 2026), mostly about "firsts" with China and Iran.

2024–2026 MCQs are from the FPSC papers with original options. 2014–2023 MCQs come from published answer keys (the FPSC copies only contain Part-II), so their options are rewritten but the keyed answer is kept and checked.

Part-I — Past MCQs

1. (CSS 2014) Which country opposed Pakistan's membership of the United Nations?

  • (A) India
  • (B) Afghanistan
  • (C) Israel
  • (D) USSR
  • ✅ (B) Afghanistan — the only vote against (30 September 1947), over the Durand Line; withdrawn weeks later.

2. (CSS 2017) The first country to open its embassy in Pakistan was:

  • (A) USA
  • (B) Iran
  • (C) Turkey
  • (D) Afghanistan
  • ✅ (B) Iran as keyed — also the first to recognise Pakistan (1947).

3. (CSS 2023) The first country to recognise Pakistan after independence was:

  • (A) Saudi Arabia
  • (B) Turkey
  • (C) Iran
  • (D) USA
  • ✅ (C) Iran — the standard answer (a few sources differ).

4. (CSS 2026) Which Middle Eastern country was the first to recognise Pakistan in 1947?

  • (A) Saudi Arabia
  • (B) Egypt
  • (C) Iran
  • (D) Iraq
  • ✅ (C) Iran — also tested in 2023. The Shah was the first head of state to visit Pakistan (March 1950).

5. (CSS 2017) Pakistan's ambassador to China (at the time of the paper) was:

  • (A) Masood Khalid
  • (B) Naghmana Hashmi
  • (C) Moin-ul-Haque
  • (D) Salman Bashir
  • ✅ (A) Masood Khalid (2013–19).
    • ⚠️ Date-dependent: then Naghmana Hashmi (2019–21), Moin-ul-Haque (2021–24), Khalil Hashmi (from 2024).

6. (CSS 2021) China signed an air transport agreement with Pakistan in:

  • (A) 1961
  • (B) 1963
  • (C) 1965
  • (D) 1971
  • ✅ (B) 1963 — signed 29 August 1963; PIA became the first non-communist airline to fly to China (1964).
    • Same year: trade agreement (January) and boundary agreement (2 March).

7. (CSS 2024) What is considered the greatest monument of Pakistan-China collaboration?

  • (A) Karachi-Gwadar Highway
  • (B) Karakoram Highway
  • (C) Lahore Orange Line
  • (D) K2 Base-camp
  • ✅ (B) Karakoram Highway — about 1,300 km, Hasan Abdal to Kashgar via Khunjerab (4,693 m).
    • Built 1959–79; "eighth wonder of the world"; 800–1,000 workers died.

8. (CSS 2024) An agreement on the demarcation of boundaries was concluded between Pakistan and China in the year:

  • (A) 1961
  • (B) 1962
  • (C) 1963
  • (D) 1964
  • ✅ (C) 1963 — signed in Beijing on 2 March 1963 by Bhutto and Marshal Chen Yi.
    • Pakistan dropped its Shaksgam claim; China gave up about 750 sq miles.
    • Article 6: provisional until Kashmir is settled.

9. (CSS 2025) A Free Trade Agreement between Pakistan and China was signed on:

  • (A) 24 October 2006
  • (B) 24 November 2006
  • (C) 24 December 2006
  • (D) None of these
  • ✅ (B) 24 November 2006 — during Hu Jintao's visit; in force July 2007.
    • Phase II signed April 2019, in force January 2020.

10. (CSS 2025) Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA) was signed on:

  • (A) 28 July 2008
  • (B) 28 July 2009
  • (C) 28 July 2010
  • (D) None of these
  • ✅ (D) None of these — signed 28 October 2010 (MoU in July 2010).
    • Replaced the 1965 agreement; in force June 2011.

🧠 Additional Practice Questions — Not Actual FPSC Past Papers

  • "Pak-China relations: an all-weather friendship. Discuss with reference to CPEC."
  • "Discuss the irritants in Pakistan-Iran relations and suggest measures to improve them."
  • "Pakistan's relations with Afghanistan since 2021."
  • "Prospects of Pakistan's relations with Central Asian Republics."