Islam — A Comparative Overview
Islam (الإسلام) is the world's second-largest religion, with approximately 1.9 billion adherents across every continent — about a quarter of humanity. Founded in early seventh-century Arabia by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him, c. 570–632 CE), it is the youngest of the three Abrahamic monotheisms and self-consciously presents itself as the final and complete restoration of the same primordial monotheism (tawḥīd) taught by all the prophets from Adam to Jesus.
The Arabic word "Islam" (إسلام) derives from the root s-l-m, with the dual sense of submission (to God) and peace (which results from that submission). A Muslim is "one who submits". Islam is conceived not as a new religion but as the restoration of the original dīn al-fiṭra — the religion native to human nature.
Founder and history
The Prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born at Makkah in 570 CE in the Quraysh tribe. Orphaned young, he gained a reputation as al-Amin ("the Trustworthy"). At age 40 (610 CE) he received the first revelation of the Qur'an in the cave of Hira through the angel Jibril (Gabriel). Major events of his life:
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 570 CE | Birth at Makkah |
| 610 CE | First revelation, Cave of Hira |
| 610–622 | Makkan period; persecution of early Muslims |
| 622 CE | Hijra (emigration to Madinah); start of Islamic calendar |
| 624 | Battle of Badr |
| 625 | Battle of Uhud |
| 627 | Battle of the Trench (Khandaq) |
| 628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyya |
| 630 | Peaceful conquest of Makkah |
| 632 | Farewell Pilgrimage; death of the Prophet at Madinah |
After his death, the Rashidun (Rightly-Guided) Caliphs — Abu Bakr (632–634), Umar (634–644), Uthman (644–656) and Ali (656–661) — led the early Muslim community. The major dynasties that followed were the Umayyads (661–750, Damascus), Abbasids (750–1258, Baghdad), Fatimids, Ottomans (1299–1924), Safavids and Mughals.
Scriptures
The Qur'an
The Qur'an (القرآن) is the literal, uncreated Word of God in Arabic, revealed to Muhammad over 23 years (610–632). Its 114 suras (chapters), of which 86 are Makkan and 28 Madinan, were compiled into a single recension under Caliph Uthman c. 650 CE. Key features:
- Approximately 6,236 verses (ayat).
- Written in classical Arabic; considered inimitable (i'jaz).
- Read in seven canonical readings (qira'at).
- Recited daily by Muslims in the five prayers.
The Hadith and Sunnah
The Sunnah — the Prophet's words, deeds and tacit approvals — is preserved in hadith literature. The six canonical Sunni collections are:
| Collection | Compiler | Date |
|---|---|---|
| Sahih al-Bukhari | al-Bukhari (810–870) | c. 846 |
| Sahih Muslim | Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (815–875) | c. 855 |
| Sunan Abu Dawud | Abu Dawud (817–889) | 9th c. |
| Jami' al-Tirmidhi | al-Tirmidhi (824–892) | 9th c. |
| Sunan al-Nasa'i | al-Nasa'i (829–915) | 9th c. |
| Sunan Ibn Majah | Ibn Majah (824–887) | 9th c. |
Shia Islam recognises four principal hadith collections — Al-Kafi, Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih, Tahdhib al-Ahkam, Al-Istibsar — known together as the al-Kutub al-Arba'a ("the Four Books").
- Founder: Prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah (570–632 CE).
- Scripture: Qur'an (114 suras, ~6,236 verses).
- Six Articles of Faith (Iman): Allah, angels, books, prophets, Last Day, qadr.
- Five Pillars (Arkan): Shahada, Salah, Zakah, Sawm, Hajj.
- Hijra: 622 CE — start of the Islamic calendar.
- Two major sects: Sunni (~85%) and Shia (~15%).
- Four Sunni schools of law (madhahib): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali.
- Adherents: ~1.9 billion; second-largest religion.
The Five Pillars (Arkan al-Islam)
The classical Sunni statement of Islam's principal practices is the Five Pillars, taught in the famous Hadith of Gabriel:
- Shahada (شهادة) — testimony: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."
- Salah (صلاة) — the five daily ritual prayers (Fajr, Zuhr, Asr, Maghrib, Isha).
- Zakah (زكاة) — almsgiving of 2.5% of accumulated wealth annually.
- Sawm (صوم) — fasting during the month of Ramadan.
- Hajj (حج) — pilgrimage to Makkah at least once in a lifetime, if able.
The Six Articles of Faith (Arkan al-Iman)
Sunni and Shia Muslims share these six articles:
- Tawhid — belief in One God (Allah).
- Belief in angels (mala'ika).
- Belief in revealed books (Qur'an, Torah, Psalms, Gospel).
- Belief in prophets (anbiya'), 124,000 in tradition, twenty-five named in the Qur'an.
- Belief in the Day of Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyamah).
- Belief in Divine Decree (qadr) — both good and ill from God.
Major sects
Sunni
About 85% of Muslims. "Sunni" derives from ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'a — followers of the Prophet's Sunnah and the community of the early caliphate. Four legal schools (madhahib) coexist:
| Madhab | Founder | Geography |
|---|---|---|
| Hanafi | Imam Abu Hanifa (699–767) | South Asia, Turkey, Central Asia, Levant |
| Maliki | Imam Malik (711–795) | North & West Africa |
| Shafi'i | Imam al-Shafi'i (767–820) | Egypt, East Africa, SE Asia |
| Hanbali | Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855) | Saudi Arabia, Gulf |
Shia
About 15% of Muslims; concentrated in Iran (~90%), Iraq (~65%), Bahrain, Azerbaijan, Lebanon and Pakistan (~15–20%). Three principal Shia branches:
- Twelver (Ithna Ashariyya) — the vast majority of Shias; believe in twelve Imams from Ali ibn Abi Talib to Muhammad al-Mahdi (in occultation since 874 CE).
- Isma'ili (Sevener) — followed Ismail ibn Ja'far in the eighth century; today led by the Aga Khan (Nizari branch).
- Zaidi (Fivers) — followed Zayd ibn Ali; principally in Yemen.
Other movements
- Sufism (Tasawwuf) — the mystical-spiritual dimension; major orders include the Qadiriyya (Abdul Qadir Jilani, d. 1166), Chishtiyya (Muinuddin Chishti, d. 1236), Naqshbandiyya, Suhrawardiyya, Mevleviyya.
- Kharijites — early sectarian movement; almost extinct.
- Ibadiyya — only surviving heir of Kharijism; majority in Oman.
- Ahmadiyya — late-19th-century movement around Mirza Ghulam Ahmad; declared non-Muslim by Pakistani constitutional amendment in 1974.
Islamic theology and law
Theology (Kalam)
Three main schools:
- Mu'tazila (rationalist, prominent 8th–10th c.).
- Ash'ari (founded by al-Ash'ari, 874–936) — mainstream Sunni theology.
- Maturidi (founded by al-Maturidi, d. 944) — common in Hanafi regions.
Law (Fiqh)
Built from four sources (Sunni usul al-fiqh): Qur'an, Sunnah, Ijma' (consensus), Qiyas (analogy). Shia usul substitutes 'aql (reason) for qiyas.
Festivals
| Festival | Occasion |
|---|---|
| Eid al-Fitr | End of Ramadan fast |
| Eid al-Adha | Hajj; commemorates Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice Ismail |
| Mawlid al-Nabi | Prophet's birthday (12 Rabi' al-Awwal) |
| Laylat al-Qadr | Night of Power (last 10 days of Ramadan) |
| Ashura | 10 Muharram; martyrdom of Imam Husayn at Karbala (680 CE) |
Islam in comparative perspective
In relation to the other Abrahamic faiths, Islam:
- Affirms strict monotheism, rejecting the Trinity but honouring Jesus (Isa) as a prophet and messiah.
- Recognises earlier prophets including all the major biblical figures.
- Considers the Qur'an the final and uncorrupted revelation, completing earlier scriptures.
- Forbids representation of God and prophets in icons.
- Maintains a unified law-and-theology (sharia), with no formal clergy in Sunni Islam.
In relation to Indic religions:
- Hinduism: opposed on polytheism and image-veneration but extensive Sufi-Hindu interaction, especially in Mughal India.
- Buddhism: shares ethical themes; differs on God and the soul.
Contemporary status
Islam is the majority religion of 49 countries, with the largest Muslim populations in Indonesia (~230 million), Pakistan (~240 million), India (~210 million as minority), Bangladesh and Nigeria. It is the fastest-growing religion in the world, expected to roughly equal Christianity in numbers by 2060.
For CSS, fasten five facts: (1) Prophet Muhammad (570–632), Hijra 622 CE; (2) Qur'an — 114 suras, ~6,236 verses; (3) Five Pillars and Six Articles of Faith; (4) Sunni (85%) and Shia (15%) with four Sunni schools; (5) ~1.9 billion adherents, world's second-largest and fastest-growing religion.
Conclusion
Islam is at once the youngest of the world's major religions and the bearer of one of its longest unbroken legal-theological traditions. Its theological centre — tawhid, the absolute oneness of God — provides the comparative point of contact with Judaism and the comparative point of distinction from Christianity; while its civilisational reach has produced literatures, sciences and political forms from Cordoba to Java that remain shaping forces in the world today.