Book Notes — Ch 1 Introduction (Book pp. 25–36)

Every point from the textbook's Chapter 1 pages, rewritten as short exam notes. Read the 💬 box first, then the bullets, then the 🎯 exam angle. Use with the main Chapter 1 hub for theory and Pakistan examples.

0. ✅ Coverage Map (nothing missed)

⚠️

Important correction: the book's eight factors behind crime trends are age, economy, social malaise, gangs, drug use, MEDIA, justice policy, crime opportunities. "Guns" is not one of the book's eight (it is a useful extra). Learn the book's list for MCQs.

1. 🧾 Definitions of Crime (the three boxed scholars)

• Ipso facto = Latin for "by that very fact".
• The book prints Darrow's last word as "perceived"; the standard wording is "prescribed" (penalty is fixed in advance).
• Darrow = legal type; Barnes and Teeters = social + legal bridge; Eliot and Meril = sociological type.

💬

In plain English: Darrow says "it is a crime if the law bans it and a punishment is fixed." Barnes and Teeters say "society gets so offended that parliament writes a law." Eliot and Meril say "crime breaks the normal relationships between people, and society decides what counts."

🎯

Exam angle: open a 20-mark "define crime" answer with one quote from each type (legal, social-legal, sociological), then say no single definition is universal.

2. 🕰️ Crime Is a Relative Term

• The definition of crime varies across history and across jurisdictions (countries).
• Even great figures were treated as criminals by the State.

• The book's question: "Were individuals like these 'criminals'?" → Legally yes, morally no. A legal label is not the same as moral wrong.
• 🧠 Memory hook: S-J-M-M = Socrates, Jesus, Martin, Mandela.
• ⚠️ MCQ trap: the book says Mandela served 26 years; most sources say 27. In a general-knowledge MCQ choose 27; in a book-based MCQ follow the option closest to the book.

💬

In plain English: what counts as a crime depends on who holds power and when. Yesterday's "criminal" can be today's hero.

🎯

Exam angle: use these four as the relativity proof in any definition answer. Pakistan examples: kite-flying ban in Punjab; Hudood Ordinance 1979 replaced by Women Protection Act 2006.

3. ⚒️ Marxist Writers (Box)

• Box argues definitions of crime are only ideological constructs (ideas that serve a group).
• They do not cover the behaviours that objectively cause the most harm, injury and suffering (book's example: low pay).
• Instead they cover only a sub-section of behaviours, committed by:
  1. young people
  2. poorly educated males
  3. often unemployed
  4. living in working-class, impoverished neighbourhoods
  5. frequently from an ethnic minority

💬

In plain English: the law mostly chases poor street offenders, while bigger harms like exploitation, unsafe factories and underpaid workers escape the label "crime".

🎯

Exam angle: link to the conflict view, white-collar crime (Sutherland) and critical criminology. Critical point: left realism replies that the poor are also the main victims of street crime.

4. 🏛️ Durkheim on Crime (and the Socrates example)

• Social change happened because people went against settled rules and opposed the interests of those in power.
• A society with no crime would be "pathologically over-controlled" (too rigid to change).
• Socrates: criminal under Athenian law, and his condemnation was no more than just by that law.
• But his "crime", independence of thought, served humanity and his country: it prepared a new morality and faith that Athenians needed, because old traditions no longer matched the conditions of life.

4.1 "Following Durkheim" (p. 26): crime is a complex interaction

Crime is not an abstraction and not a simple plain fact. It is a complex interaction of many processes:

1. Creation of the concept of "crime"
2. People identifying some event as a crime
3. Responses to the event so called
4. Behaviour and formal activities of state agencies (or global bodies like the International Criminal Court) that may or may not process and punish the persons as "criminals"
5. All of this happens against the cultural backdrop of that time

• 🧠 Memory hook: Create → Identify → Respond → Agencies (inside a culture).

💬

In plain English: crime is not a thing lying on the ground. Someone first makes the rule, someone spots the act, people react, and the police and courts decide what to do, all inside a particular culture.

🎯

Exam angle: Durkheim's idea that crime can be normal and useful (it drives moral change) is a strong critical point. Pair it with the consensus view.

5. 📐 Social, Religious and Legal Definitions

• Definition of crime is contextual. Crime has social, religious and legal definitions.

5.1 Legal definition: key points

• Only such acts or omissions are crimes.
• If no public authority is capable or ready to police and punish, there is no crime.
• Crimes and criminals exist only when a public body has judged them by accepted procedures.
• Without the State and criminal law there is no crime. Without criminal justice systems there are no criminals.

5.2 Box: A Legal Definition

• A crime is an intentional violation of the criminal law or penal code, committed without defence or excuse, and penalised by the State.
• 🧠 Four elements, memory hook I-V-D-P: Intentional, Violation of criminal law, no Defence or excuse, Penalised by the State.
• Major advantage: at least on the surface, it is narrower and less ambiguous than a social definition.

5.3 Box: Social Definition of Crime (three terms)

• ⚠️ MCQ trap: folkways = no sanctions; mores = sanctions. Do not swap them.

💬

In plain English: Social = "it feels wrong and someone should answer for it." Religious = "God forbids it." Legal = "the law says so and the State can punish it." Law is the narrowest and clearest, but not always the fairest.

🎯

Exam angle: present the three-column table, then argue the legal definition is the working one for criminology (clear, narrow) while the social and religious ones explain why some legal acts feel wrong and some harmful acts stay legal. Add a Pakistan example: riba, adultery or alcohol where religious and legal lines overlap or differ.

6. 🏷️ The Interactionist View (Box)

• Moral entrepreneurs define crime.
• Acts become crimes because society defines them that way.
• Criminal labels are life-transforming events.
• (Extra) Moral entrepreneur is Howard Becker's term for people who campaign to create or enforce rules.

💬

In plain English: nothing is a crime by nature. Campaigners and lawmakers decide, and once you are branded "criminal" your whole life can change: jobs, friends, even how you see yourself.

🎯

Exam angle: link to labelling theory (Becker, Lemert) and deviancy amplification (see media factors in §12).

7. 🔬 What Is Criminology? (Sutherland and Cressey)

• Definition: the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. Its scope includes the processes of making laws, breaking laws and reacting toward the breaking of laws.
• Objective: develop general and verified principles and other types of knowledge about this process of law, crime and treatment.
• Simple form: criminology is studying criminal behaviour scientifically.

7.1 Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Behaviour (book's lead-in)

• Some criminologists think individual traits play some role.
• Most believe social factors are the root cause of crime.
• Even the most disturbed people are shaped by their environment, social interactions and personal relationships.

7.2 The three processes

• Match with Sutherland's three divisions: (1) sociology of law, (2) criminal etiology + penology, (3) scientific method.

💬

In plain English: criminology asks three things: why do we ban things?, why do people break the ban and how should we respond?, and can we prove our answers with real evidence?

8. 🧪 Is Criminology a Science?

8.1 "So how did criminology become a science?": the four natures

1. Applied science
   • For causes of crime: anthropology, zoology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences.
   • For crime detection: chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, ballistics, photography, legal medicine, questioned-document examination.
   • This use of instruments and sciences is called Instrumentation.
2. Social science: crime is a social creation that exists in society, so its study is part of social science.
3. Dynamic: it changes as social conditions change, and advances with the other sciences applied to it.
4. Nationalistic: crime must be studied in relation to the existing criminal law of a territory or country; whether an act is a crime depends on that country's criminal law.

• 🧠 Memory hook: A-S-D-N = Applied, Social, Dynamic, Nationalistic.

💬

In plain English: it borrows tools from many sciences (applied), studies people in society (social), keeps changing with society and technology (dynamic), and always depends on each country's own laws (nationalistic).

🎯

Exam angle: state the debate (Sutherland/Cressey vs Wilker), give the four natures, then take a verdict: an empirical social science with limits (matches the hub page).

9. 🎯 Research Objects of Criminology (7 boxes in the chart)

1. Delinquency (the act)
2. Delinquents (the actor)
3. Victims
4. Social environment (surroundings)
5. Criminality in general sense (the big picture)
6. Types and methods for control of crimes
7. Behavioural prognosis and treatment of delinquents (predicting and curing)

• 🧠 Memory hook: Act, Actor, Victim, Surroundings, Big picture, Control, Cure.

💬

In plain English: criminology studies the crime, the criminal, the victim, the setting, the overall picture, how to control crime, and how to predict and treat offenders.

10. 📊 How Criminologists Study Crime (book details)

• They measure the nature and extent of criminal behaviour and the personality, attitudes and background of offenders.
• Six methods: surveys, cohort studies, official record studies, experiments, observation and interviews, meta-analysis and systematic reviews.
• (Comparison table with strengths and limits: 🧪 Studying & Measuring Crime — Ch 1)

10.1 Survey research

• Used to measure attitudes, beliefs, values, characteristics and behaviour; by correlating responses, researchers see the relationship between two or more personal factors.
• Three types:
  1. Self-report survey: people describe their recent and lifetime criminal activity; given in groups; anonymity promised so answers are honest.
  2. Victimization survey: people describe their experiences as crime victims; a staple of criminological data.
  3. Cross-sectional survey: meant to be representative of all members of society. Example: all youths in a local public high school surveyed on substance abuse; the sample holds rich and poor, males and females, users and non-users.
• Sampling: choose a limited number of subjects who represent the whole population. Example: interview 3,000 prison inmates drawn from over one million US inmates; assume the sample is similar to the population.
• Advantages of surveys (cost-effective for large numbers):
  1. Standardised questions and methods, so uniformity is not affected by the data gatherer's bias
  2. Careful samples let researchers generalise from small groups to large populations
  3. Measure people at one point in time but can ask about past behaviour and future goals

10.2 Cohort research: longitudinal and retrospective

• Cohort = a group sharing a like characteristic, observed over time.
• Data may include: school experiences, arrests, hospitalisations, family life (divorces, parental relations); repeated intelligence and physical exams; diets monitored; collected with or without the subjects' knowledge from schools, police and other sources.
• Value: if carefully done, it shows which life experiences (for example growing up in a non-intact home or failing at school) come before the onset of crime and delinquency.
• Problem: extremely difficult, expensive and time-consuming, so other strategies are used.
• Retrospective cohort study: take an intact cohort of known offenders and look back at early life through educational, family, police and hospital records.
• Where the records come from (the offender's journey):

• 🧠 Memory hook: School → Hospital → Police → Court → Prison (follows the offender's path).

10.3 Official record research

• Uses records of government agencies: police departments, prisons and courts.
• Sometimes collected, compiled and analysed by agencies such as the US Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS).

10.4 Experimental research

• Tests the effect of one condition or behaviour on another. Book example: does watching a violent TV show make viewers act aggressively?
• Researchers manipulate or intervene in subjects' lives to see the outcome or effect of the intervention.
• Three elements of a true experiment:
  1. Random selection of subjects
  2. A control or comparison group
  3. The experimental condition (to find the effect, such as viewing violent media)

10.5 Observational and interview research

• Focus on relatively few subjects, interviewing them in depth or observing them in their activities.
• Gives depth data that large-scale surveys lack.

10.6 Meta-analysis and systematic review

• Meta-analysis: gathers data from many previous studies, extracts and pools comparable data; grouped data give a more powerful and valid indicator of relationships than a single study.
• Systematic review: collects findings of previously conducted scientific studies on a particular problem, appraises and synthesises the evidence, and uses it to answer a scientific question; a widely accepted way to evaluate public policy interventions.

💬

In plain English: Survey = ask many people. Cohort = follow (or trace back) the same group. Records = use files already kept. Experiment = test one change fairly. Observation/interview = go deep on a few. Meta-analysis = combine many studies into one stronger answer.

🎯

Exam angle: for each method give book example + one limit. Strong extra line: surveys are the cheapest way to measure large numbers; experiments are best for cause and effect but hardest to do ethically.

11. 🗂️ Crime Data Collection Methods (book p. 31)

• Primary sources: UCR, NIBRS, NCVS, self-report surveys.

• 🧠 Memory hook: UCR = Police. NCVS = Victims. Self-report = Offenders (students).
• ⚠️ MCQ trap: UCR omits drug use; NCVS omits substance abuse; self-report INCLUDES substance abuse.

💬

In plain English: police data miss unreported crime, victim surveys depend on memory, and offender surveys depend on honesty. Use all three together.

12. 📈 Explaining Crime Trends (book's 8 factors)

• Crime experts have identified social, economic, personal and demographic factors, but are still uncertain how they affect trends; directional change seems linked to changes in crime rates.
• 📉 Graph (BJS): violent victimization per 1,000 persons aged 12 or older, 1993–2022 fell sharply from about 80 in 1993 to roughly the 20s, with small bumps, then stayed fairly flat (read approximately from the chart).
• 🧠 Memory hook for the 8: A-E-S-G-D-M-J-O = Age, Economy, Social malaise, Gangs, Drugs, Media, Justice policy, Opportunities.

12.1 Age

• Hirschi and Gottfredson: "Age is everywhere correlated with crime."
• Teenagers have extremely high crime rates.
• Experts see change in the population age distribution as the greatest influence on trends: crime rate follows the proportion of young males.
• Juveniles were expected to increase over the next decade, so some feared a return to escalating crime.
• But the growing number of senior citizens (who do not commit much crime) may have a moderating effect, offsetting the effect of teens.

💬

In plain English: more young men means more crime; more grandparents means a calmer society. (Pakistan link: youth bulge.)

12.2 Economy

• Debate over the effect of the economy on crime.
• Logical view: in a downturn, unemployed people become more motivated to commit theft.
• Opposite view: a poor economy may lower crime because:
  1. unemployed parents are home to supervise children and guard possessions
  2. less to spend, so fewer valuables worth stealing
  3. law-abiding, middle-aged workers are unlikely to turn to crime when laid off
• Kleck and Chiricos: found no relationship between unemployment and most crimes, including robbery of gas stations, banks and liquor stores, and non-violent property crimes (shoplifting, residential burglary, theft of vehicle parts, theft of cars, trucks and motorcycles).
• Long run: a strong economy may help lower crime; long periods of sustained weakness may raise it. Crime skyrocketed in the 1930s Great Depression and fell when the economy surged for almost a decade in the 1990s.

Social class and crime (unresolved issue)

• Crime traditionally seen as a lower-class phenomenon: the lowest rungs have the greatest incentive.
• Instrumental crimes: theft or illegal activities (such as selling narcotics) to obtain desired goods when conventional means fail.
• Expressive crimes: such as rape and assault, used to express rage, frustration and anger against society; the poor are believed to commit a disproportionate amount.
• Alcohol and drug abuse, common in impoverished areas, fuel violent episodes.
• 🧠 Instrumental = a tool to get something. Expressive = an outlet for feelings.

💬

In plain English: bad times do not always mean more crime. Long-term weakness probably does. The poor may steal to get things (instrumental) or lash out in anger (expressive).

12.3 Social malaise

• As social problems rise (single-parent families, dropout rates, racial conflict, teen pregnancies), crime rates rise too.
• Crime rates correlate with the number of unwed mothers; the book suggests their children need more social services, which can tax the child welfare system.
• Teenage birth rate began to decrease in the late 1980s; crime rates followed 15–20 years later.
• Racial conflict (book's argument): areas with in-migration of minorities into predominantly white neighbourhoods may see crime increases as residents use violence to protect their "home turf"; racially motivated crimes diminish as neighbourhoods integrate and power struggles are resolved.
• ⚠️ Critical note: these are correlations, not proof of cause. A strong answer says so.

12.4 Gangs

• Explosive growth of teenage gangs: about 33,000 gangs and 1.4 million members in the US (book).
• Gang boys are far more likely to carry guns; criminal activity increases when kids join gangs.
• Alfred Blumstein: urban drug-trade gangs recruit juveniles because they work cheaply, are immune from heavy penalties and are daring and risk-taking.
• Arms race: armed drug-dealing children become a menace, which pushes non-gang adolescents to arm themselves → spiral of violence.
• Decade-long decline in crime may be tied to changing gang values: the "younger brother syndrome". Street-wise kids avoid gangs because they watched older siblings or parents caught in gangs or drugs.
• But a recent upswing in gang violence may herald a general rise in violent crime.
• 📊 Chart: Factors influencing local gang violence (percent of respondents reporting the factor, read approximately): Drug-related (about 73) > Intergang conflict (about 63) > Return from confinement (about 54) > Gang member migration within US (about 48) > Emergence of new gangs (about 45) > Intragang conflict (about 42) > Migration from outside US (about 36).

12.5 Drug use

• Some experts tie the 1980–1990 rise in violent crime to the crack epidemic and drug-trafficking gangs fighting over turf.
• Gangs used violence to control territory, intimidate rivals and increase market share.
• As the crack epidemic subsided, violence in New York City and other cities also fell.
• A sudden rise in drug use may be a warning sign of future crime increases.

12.6 Media

• Violent media may influence the direction of crime rates: as violent media skyrocketed (home video players, DVDs, cable TV, computer and video games), so did teen violence rates.
• Bushman and Anderson (analysis of all available data): watching TV violence is correlated with aggressive behaviour, especially for people with an existing tendency toward crime and violence.
• Jeffrey Johnson and associates (Columbia University): more TV, more fights.

Box: The Media as a Cause of Crime (9 ways)

• 🧠 Chunk it in four: Behaviour (1–3: imitate, arouse, numb) · Know-how and targets (4–5) · Motivation (6, 8: want, glamour) · Control system (7, 9: weak police, panic).

💬

In plain English: screens can teach tricks, show what is worth stealing, make us want things, make crime look cool, make police look useless, and make us numb to violence.

12.7 Justice policy

• Some experts say crime fell because of adding large numbers of police and using them in aggressive practices against quality-of-life crimes: panhandling, graffiti, petty drug dealing, loitering.
• Idea: if even the smallest infractions are dealt with seriously, would-be criminals are discouraged from serious crime. (Extra: this is the "Broken Windows" idea.)
• Michael White and associates: cities with aggressive, focused police work may lower homicide rates.
• Tough laws with lengthy prison terms for drug dealers and repeat offenders may deter some and lock up high-rate offenders. As the prison population expanded, the crime rate fell.
• ⚠️ Critical note: the size of the effect is debated; a strong answer also mentions costs and fairness.

12.8 Crime opportunities

• Crime rates drop when market conditions change or an alternative criminal opportunity appears.
• Burglary decline over the past decade partly explained by the abundance and falling price of commonly stolen goods like DVDs and digital cameras.
• Better home and commercial security may push would-be burglars into other crime, such as theft from motor vehicles.
• These are non-index crimes and do not count in the national crime rate.
• (Extra link: Routine Activities Theory, Cohen and Felson.)

🎯

Exam angle (whole of §12): list all eight factors, elaborate 3 with the book's named study (Hirschi and Gottfredson, Kleck and Chiricos, Blumstein, Bushman and Anderson, Michael White), then end with "no single factor explains trends; effects interact". Add Pakistan: youth bulge, urban inequality, narcotics, extortion gangs in Karachi, digital media.

13. 🌦️ The Ecology of Crime

• Crime rate patterns are linked to temporal and ecological factors.

13.1 Day, season and climate

• Most reported crimes occur in the warm summer months, July and August.
• Why: teenagers (highest crime levels) are out of school; people spend more time outdoors (easier targets); homes are left vacant (property crime).
• Exceptions: murders and robberies occur often in December and January (though also high in summer).
• First day of the month: crime may be higher. Welfare and Social Security cheques arrive, so people may break into mailboxes and accost recipients; extra disposable income relates to drinking, partying and gambling.

13.2 Temperature

• Laboratory studies: association between temperature and crime is an inverted U-shaped curve: crime rises with heat, then declines at some point (85°F) when it is too hot for physical exertion.
• Field studies: rates of some crimes (for example domestic assault) keep rising with temperature, but not all (for example rape).
• A long stretch of highly uncomfortable weather is related to murder rates: stress of long-term exposure to extreme temperatures may raise violence.
• Ellen Cohn and James Rotton: highly significant effect on assault, especially in morning and evening hours; a person is four times more likely to be assaulted at midnight when the temperature exceeds 90°F than in extreme cold (the exact cold figure is cut off in the page photo; check your copy).
• 📉 Graph (BJS NCVS, 1993–2010): seasonal violent victimization per 1,000 persons aged 12+ shows summer peaks and a downward trend overall (about 14–15 at the start to around 4 at the end, read approximately).

13.3 Regional differences

• Large urban areas have by far the highest violence rates; areas with low per-capita crime tend to be rural (also supported by victim data).
• Exceptions: resort areas with large transient or seasonal populations, such as Atlantic City, New Jersey.
• Western and southern states have had consistently higher crime than the Midwest and Northeast.
• This convinced some criminologists that local conditions influence crime rates.

💬

In plain English: crime peaks when people are outdoors, off school, flush with cash or hot and irritable, and it is heavier in big cities than in villages.

🎯

Exam angle: three headings (time, temperature, region), one named study each (Cohn and Rotton for heat), plus the inverted U and the resort exception. Link regional differences to Social Disorganisation Theory (Shaw and McKay).

14. ⚠️ Book-Specific MCQ Traps

1. Darrow = law of the land + penalty. Barnes and Teeters = anti-social + public sentiment + statute. Eliot and Meril = ipso facto, social disturbance.
2. Folkways = customs, no legal sanctions. Mores = sanctions attached.
3. Legal definition box: intentional, violation of criminal law, no defence or excuse, penalised by State.
4. Interactionist box: moral entrepreneurs; labels are life-transforming.
5. Durkheim: no crime = "pathologically over-controlled" society.
6. Sutherland and Cressey: not yet a science, hope to become one. Wilker: can never become one.
7. Four natures: applied, social, dynamic, nationalistic. Instrumentation = use of sciences and instruments.
8. Research objects chart = 7 boxes.
9. Cross-sectional survey = all members of a community, e.g. whole high school.
10. Three experiment elements: random selection, control group, experimental condition.
11. Retrospective cohort = looks back using school, hospital, police, court, prison records.
12. UCR omits drug use; NCVS omits substance abuse; self-report includes it.
13. Hirschi and Gottfredson = age. Kleck and Chiricos = unemployment. Blumstein = gangs. Bushman and Anderson = media. Michael White = aggressive policing. Cohn and Rotton = heat and assault.
14. Younger brother syndrome = gangs (decline of gang appeal).
15. Gang chart: drug-related factors rank highest.
16. Media chart numbers: 9 / 28 / 42 fights; 22.5% / 28.8% adult violence.
17. July and August = most crimes; December and January = murders and robberies; first of the month = welfare cheques.
18. Inverted U peaks then falls at 85°F; 90°F in Cohn and Rotton (four times).
19. Instrumental = obtain goods; expressive = express rage.
20. Burglary fell because DVDs and digital cameras became cheap; thieves shifted to theft from motor vehicles (non-index).

15. 📝 Practice MCQs (answers right below)

1. "Crime is an action forbidden by the law of the land and for which the penalty is prescribed" is by: (A) Darrow (B) Durkheim (C) Becker (D) Sutherland
2. Anti-social behaviour that violates public sentiment so strongly that statute forbids it: (A) Eliot and Meril (B) Barnes and Teeters (C) Darrow (D) Box
3. Who was condemned for corrupting the youth of Athens? (A) Plato (B) Aristotle (C) Socrates (D) Solon
4. A society with no crime would be "pathologically over-controlled" said: (A) Marx (B) Durkheim (C) Merton (D) Becker
5. Norms based on customs with no legal sanctions: (A) Mores (B) Statutes (C) Folkways (D) Taboos
6. Which is NOT in the book's legal definition? (A) Intentional (B) Without defence or excuse (C) Penalised by the State (D) Approved by the majority
7. "Moral entrepreneurs define crime" belongs to the: (A) Legal view (B) Marxist view (C) Interactionist view (D) Religious view
8. Which statement fits Sutherland and Cressey on science? (A) Criminology is a full science (B) Not yet a science but hopes to become one (C) Can never be a science (D) Is a natural science
9. Who said criminology can never become a science for lack of a universal proposition of crime? (A) Wilker (B) Cressey (C) Garofalo (D) Beccaria
10. Using chemistry, ballistics and photography in crime detection is called: (A) Instrumentation (B) Triangulation (C) Sampling (D) Profiling
11. Which is NOT one of the four natures? (A) Applied (B) Dynamic (C) Static (D) Nationalistic
12. The research objects chart has how many boxes? (A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 7 (D) 8
13. A survey of all youths in a local high school on substance abuse is: (A) Cohort (B) Cross-sectional (C) Experimental (D) Retrospective
14. Which is NOT an element of a true experiment? (A) Random selection (B) Control group (C) Experimental condition (D) Anonymous sample
15. Looking back at known offenders' school, hospital and police records is a: (A) Longitudinal study (B) Retrospective cohort study (C) Meta-analysis (D) Survey
16. Which source omits most drug usage? (A) UCR (B) NCVS (C) Self-report (D) NIBRS
17. "Age is everywhere correlated with crime": (A) Kleck and Chiricos (B) Hirschi and Gottfredson (C) Blumstein (D) White
18. Kleck and Chiricos found: (A) Unemployment causes robbery (B) No relationship between unemployment and most crimes (C) Recession lowers all crime (D) Prosperity raises crime
19. Selling narcotics to obtain goods is: (A) Expressive crime (B) Instrumental crime (C) Moral panic (D) Folkway
20. "Younger brother syndrome" relates to: (A) Media (B) Gangs (C) Economy (D) Drugs
21. Highest-ranked factor in the gang violence chart: (A) Intergang conflict (B) Return from confinement (C) Drug-related factors (D) New gangs
22. Boys watching more than 3 hours of TV got an average of how many fights? (A) 9 (B) 28 (C) 42 (D) 22
23. Most reported crimes occur in: (A) January and February (B) July and August (C) April and May (D) October
24. Crime falls at roughly what temperature in the inverted U curve? (A) 65°F (B) 75°F (C) 85°F (D) 105°F
25. Which place is an exception to low crime in non-urban areas? (A) Atlantic City (B) Rural Iowa (C) Midwest farms (D) Northeast villages

✅

Answer key: 1-A · 2-B · 3-C · 4-B · 5-C · 6-D · 7-C · 8-B · 9-A · 10-A · 11-C · 12-C · 13-B · 14-D · 15-B · 16-A · 17-B · 18-B · 19-B · 20-B · 21-C · 22-C · 23-B · 24-C · 25-A

16. ✍️ Long Questions (outline first)

16.1 Model Answer 1 (20 marks): "Crime is a relative concept." Discuss with social, religious and legal definitions

🗺️

OUTLINE (write first, about 3 minutes)

1. Intro: no universal definition; definition is contextual
2. Three definitions: social, religious, legal (one line each + weakness)
3. Legal box: four elements and advantage
4. Proof of relativity: Socrates, Jesus, MLK, Mandela
5. Theory: Durkheim, consensus vs conflict, interactionist, Box
6. Pakistan examples
7. Conclusion

1. Introduction. Crime has no single, universal definition; it is contextual, changing with time, place, religion and power. Darrow defines it legally (forbidden by law with a prescribed penalty), Barnes and Teeters socially (violating public sentiment until the statute forbids it).

2. Three definitions

• Social: harmful act or omission for which someone ought to be held accountable, whatever the law books say. Weakness: vague.
• Religious: an act against the law of God, even if the State allows it. Weakness: differs across faiths.
• Legal: an act or omission defined by validly passed laws of the nation state, with punishment following. Weakness: law can be unjust.

3. The legal definition in detail. Intentional, violation of criminal law, no defence or excuse, penalised by the State. Advantage: narrower and less ambiguous. Without State and criminal law there is no crime; without criminal justice systems, no criminals.

4. Proof of relativity. Socrates (condemned for corrupting Athenian youth), Jesus (crucified under Roman rule), Martin Luther King (jailed in the civil rights movement) and Nelson Mandela (convicted under Apartheid, later president) were all legal criminals at the time. The label depends on who holds power.

5. Theory

• Durkheim: crime is normal and can drive moral change; a society with none would be pathologically over-controlled.
• Consensus vs conflict: laws reflect shared values, or the interests of the powerful.
• Box (Marxist): definitions are ideological constructs that target poor young males and ignore larger harms.
• Interactionists: moral entrepreneurs define crime; labels are life-transforming.

6. Pakistan. Kite-flying ban; Hudood Ordinance 1979 replaced by Women Protection Act 2006; PECA 2016 criminalising online acts that did not exist as crimes before.

7. Conclusion. Crime is best seen as a legally and socially constructed category. The legal definition gives clarity, the social and religious ones explain moral force, and the critical views warn who gets labelled.

16.2 Model Answer 2 (20 marks): "Is criminology a science?" Discuss

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OUTLINE (write first, about 2–3 minutes)

1. Intro: definition (Sutherland and Cressey) and the debate
2. Case against: Sutherland and Cressey (not yet), Wilker (never)
3. Case for: scientific method, four natures (applied, social, dynamic, nationalistic)
4. Instrumentation and research methods as evidence
5. Limits: value-laden subject, ethics
6. Verdict and Pakistan relevance

1. Introduction. Sutherland and Cressey define criminology as the body of knowledge about crime as a social phenomenon, covering making laws, breaking laws and reacting to breaking of laws. Whether it is a science is still debated.

2. Case against. Sutherland and Cressey argued it is not (yet) a science but may become one. George L. Wilker said it cannot ever become one because there is no universal proposition of crime and scientific study of criminal behaviour is impossible.

3. Case for (four natures). Applied (sciences used for causes and detection, called instrumentation), social (crime is a social creation), dynamic (changes with society and other sciences), nationalistic (tied to each country's criminal law).

4. Evidence of scientific practice. Criminologists use surveys, cohort studies, official records, experiments, observation and meta-analysis, with valid designs and sophisticated data analysis, or they lose academic standing.

5. Limits. The subject (crime) is value-laden and changes by country and era; experiments are often unethical; data have a dark figure.

6. Verdict. Criminology is an empirical social science with limits: scientific in method, but not able to produce universal laws like physics. In Pakistan, forensic science (PFSA), crime mapping and data-led policing show its applied value.

16.3 Blueprints (write the outline first, then expand)

17. ✅ Revision Checklist

• 1. Quote Darrow, Barnes and Teeters, Eliot and Meril in one line each
• 2. Name the four people in the relativity examples (S-J-M-M)
• 3. State Box's Marxist argument in three points
• 4. Explain Durkheim's "pathologically over-controlled" and the four-step process (Create, Identify, Respond, Agencies)
• 5. Table: social vs religious vs legal definition with weakness
• 6. Four legal elements (I-V-D-P)
• 7. Norms, folkways, mores
• 8. Three processes of Sutherland and Cressey
• 9. Science debate (Sutherland/Cressey vs Wilker) and four natures (A-S-D-N)
• 10. Seven research objects (Act, Actor, Victim, Surroundings, Big picture, Control, Cure)
• 11. Six methods with book examples; cohort record sources (School → Hospital → Police → Court → Prison)
• 12. UCR, NIBRS, NCVS, self-report with strengths and weaknesses
• 13. Eight factors (A-E-S-G-D-M-J-O) with one named study each
• 14. Nine ways media cause crime (four chunks)
• 15. Ecology: season, month-start, inverted U (85°F), Cohn and Rotton (90°F), regional exceptions
• 16. Write Model Answer 1 and 2 outlines from memory