2024 — Islamic Studies (CSS)

FPSC CSS 2024 — Islamic Studies

Time: 3 hours | Part-I (MCQs, compulsory): 20 marks / 30 minutes, no negative marking | Part-II: 80 marks — attempt ONLY FOUR of seven, all carrying equal marks.

🔗 Clickable Contents — Jump to Any Question

Use the links in this automatic table of contents to jump directly to a model answer (Q2–Q8), its answer outline, or the MCQ section. The table updates as headings change.

🧭 Question-Wise Answer Outlines — Part-II (2024)

These are the seven questions actually included in this year's paper. Use the points below as a revision and exam-writing plan; the full model answers remain further down the page.

Q2. Self-purification is an essential element for the evolution of society. Explain.

• Define Tazkiya-e-Nafs and identify Qur'anic basis (62:2)
• Explain the replacement of pride, greed and envy with virtue
• Relate personal reform to trustworthy dealings and social order
• Use Seerah and present-day corruption as applications
• Conclude with inner and institutional reform

Q3. The main purpose of Ghazwat-e-Nabawi ﷺ was to establish peace. Explain.

• Set out the causes and security context of major expeditions
• Discuss Badr, Uhud and the Battle of Khandaq
• Explain limits on combat and treatment of captives
• Assess treaty-making, amnesty and political stabilisation
• Conclude with a nuanced connection between security, justice and peace

Q4. Explain the doctrine of Prophethood and its importance in human life.

• Define Risalah and the need for revelation
• Explain teaching, exemplification, purification and justice
• Present Qur'anic evidence for finality (33:40)
• Discuss moral guidance for individuals and societies
• Conclude with the enduring relevance of Sunnah

Q5. How does Islam highlight human dignity and greatness? Discuss.

• Establish human dignity in Qur'an 17:70
• Explain equality, Taqwa and responsibility as Khalifah
• Cover protections of life, honour and property
• Explain Amanah and moral accountability
• Conclude with universal human worth

Q6. How can the system of accountability in Pakistan be idealized in the teachings of the Holy Prophet ﷺ? Explain.

• Define public accountability with Prophetic evidence
• Assess unequal enforcement, delays and political misuse as governance problems
• Present Rashidun examples of scrutiny and public duty
• Suggest impartial institutions, asset transparency and timely justice
• Conclude with equal application of law

Q7. How is it possible to eliminate religious and political extremism in Pakistan in the light of the teachings of the Holy Prophet ﷺ? Explain.

• Outline religious and political causes of radicalisation
• Cite moderation and prophetic examples of reconciliation
• Discuss Madina Charter, Hudaybiyyah and amnesty at Makkah
• Propose education, rule of law, intergroup dialogue and social remedies
• Conclude with peace and justice

Q8. Write notes on the following: (a) Ijtihad (b) The importance of the epistles of Hazrat Ali (R.A.)

• (a) Ijtihad: definition, requirements, sources and legal limits
• (a) Applications to medicine, finance and new social questions
• (b) Hazrat Ali's letters: administrative justice and duties of governors
• (b) Compassion, accountability and welfare as recurring ethical teachings
• Conclude each 10-mark discussion independently

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Part-I: MCQs — Answer Key with brief notes

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Part-II: Essay Questions & Model Answers

Q2. Self-purification is an essential element for the evolution of society. Explain.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Qur'anic Evidence → Islamic Concept / Background → Link to Social Evolution → Contemporary Relevance → Conclusion

Introduction

Tazkiya-e-Nafs is described by the Qur'an as one of the four core purposes of Prophethood itself, alongside the recitation and teaching of revelation.

Guidance from the Holy Qur'an

"It is He who sent among the unlettered a Messenger from themselves, reciting to them His verses, purifying them, and teaching them the Book and wisdom." (Surah Al-Jumu'ah 62:2)

Concept and Islamic Foundations

• Purification means cleansing the heart of vices such as pride, greed, envy and hypocrisy while cultivating sincerity, humility and patience in their place, pursued through daily prayer, fasting, remembrance of Allah, and regular self-accountability (Muhasabah).

Link to Social Evolution

• External laws alone cannot produce a just and cooperative society if the individual consciences within it remain corrupt, since law only governs visible conduct, whereas Tazkiya reforms the root by working on the heart itself, producing honesty in trade and fairness in dealing no external enforcement could otherwise guarantee.
• Historical demonstration: pre-Islamic Arabian society, scarred by tribal feuds, exploitation and the burying alive of infant daughters, was transformed within a single generation into a disciplined and ethical civilisation, driven primarily by the Prophet's ﷺ sustained programme of Tazkiya rather than new legislation alone.

Relevance to Contemporary Society

• Societies afflicted by corruption and moral decay require inner reform — genuine character-building and ethics education — alongside any legal or institutional reform, since institutions built on corrupted individuals will themselves eventually be corrupted.

The path from inner reform to public ethics

Tazkiyah is not simply withdrawal from the world or the multiplication of devotional exercises. Qur'an 91:9 links success to purification of the soul, while the Prophetic mission includes purification together with teaching (62:2). This establishes a connection between knowledge, intention and observable behaviour. A person may perform outward rituals yet remain dishonest in trade or abusive in authority; genuine purification requires these contradictions to be confronted through repentance, self-accountability and sustained moral discipline.

At the personal level, practices such as prayer, remembrance, fasting, truthful speech and disciplined control of anger develop the capacity to resist selfish impulses. At the collective level, that capacity reduces bribery, cheating, vindictiveness and abuse of office. Mechanism: repeated spiritual practice influences habits; habits influence choices; choices eventually shape institutions. Nevertheless, inward reform is not a substitute for independent courts, transparent rules or effective law enforcement. An exam-quality answer should explain why moral character and sound institutions must reinforce each other.

Practical Example: the difference between ritual and reform

Imagine an official who performs religious duties faithfully but accepts favours in return for public work. His outward acts do not excuse the violation of an entrusted responsibility. Tazkiyah requires him to examine intention, refuse unlawful benefit, make restitution where due and adopt habits that prevent repeated misconduct. In family life the same principle addresses cruelty, dishonesty and neglect; in commerce it requires fair measurement and truthfulness. These examples make the spiritual-social connection visible. Purification is not an emotion experienced during worship alone but a continuing discipline whose credibility is tested in ordinary decisions.

Conclusion

Self-purification is not a private spiritual luxury but the indispensable foundation on which any durable social evolution must ultimately rest.

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Q3. The main purpose of Ghazwat-e-Nabawi ﷺ was to establish peace. Explain.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Defensive Character → Ethical Conduct Confirming the Purpose → Contemporary Relevance → Qur'anic Evidence → Conclusion

Introduction

The military expeditions led by the Prophet ﷺ (Ghazwat) were, considered in their totality, overwhelmingly defensive responses to existential threats rather than campaigns of conquest.

Defensive Character

• Badr arose only after the Quraysh marched out with the explicit aim of destroying the nascent Muslim community.
• Uhud and the Battle of the Ditch were direct responses to invasions of Madina itself.
• Even campaigns that appear more offensive, such as those against Banu Qainuqa and Banu Nadir, followed specific and documented treaty violations or active plotting against the Muslims.

Ethical Conduct Confirming the Purpose

• Prohibition of killing non-combatants.
• Ban on unnecessary destruction of crops and property.
• Humane treatment extended to captives.

Relevance to Contemporary Society

• This orientation toward peace is clearest in how these campaigns concluded — through treaties, general amnesty at the Conquest of Makkah, and pragmatic integration of defeated communities, as when the Jewish population of Khyber was permitted to remain and continue farming its own land rather than being expelled or destroyed.

Guidance from the Holy Qur'an

"...a mercy to the worlds." (Surah Al-Anbiya 21:107)

Strategy, ethical limits and political purpose

The Prophet's ﷺ military leadership cannot be evaluated by battlefield outcomes alone. Effective leadership includes intelligence gathering, consultation, terrain selection, disciplined organisation, control over armed forces and the pursuit of political objectives. At the Battle of the Trench, the adoption of a defensive trench illustrates responsiveness to a new tactical proposal; at Hudaybiyyah, avoiding open conflict served a broader diplomatic aim. These episodes show strategic flexibility rather than reliance on a single method.

The ethical dimension is equally important. Islamic discussions of warfare emphasise the distinction between combatants and non-combatants, respect for agreements and restraint from indiscriminate destruction. Not every reported battlefield detail carries the same evidentiary certainty, so strong historical examples should be preferred to embellished anecdotes. Evaluation: success is measured not only by victory but also by securing a stable community and limiting unnecessary harm. Modern applications include civilian protection, disciplined command and settlement of conflict through credible negotiation.

Historical Example: the Battle of the Trench

At the Battle of Khandaq, the defensive trench helped protect Madina from a numerically threatening coalition. The important lesson is not simply that a trench was dug, but that the leadership accepted a tactical proposal suited to the situation and coordinated collective defence. Compare this with Hudaybiyyah, where an agreement—not a battlefield victory—advanced a political objective. Together the examples demonstrate the ability to select different instruments according to the problem faced. Strategic judgement includes preparing for danger, consulting others and knowing when restraint serves the community better than escalation.

Critical Reflections

The conclusion should therefore distinguish the defensive circumstances of specific expeditions from the broader Prophetic preference for security, treaty obligations and political stability. Strategy and restraint belong in the same assessment.

Conclusion

Viewed holistically — in their causes, conduct and outcomes together — the Ghazwat were fundamentally directed toward securing the Muslim community and ultimately establishing a stable and lasting peace across Arabia.

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Q4. Explain the doctrine of Prophethood and its importance in human life.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Qur'anic Evidence → Necessity and Functions → Significance of Finality → Contemporary Relevance → Conclusion

Introduction

Prophethood (Risalah) is the institution through which Allah guides humanity by means of chosen individuals, forming an unbroken chain from Adam (A.S.) to Muhammad ﷺ.

Guidance from the Holy Qur'an

"Muhammad is not the father of [any] one of your men, but [he is] the Messenger of Allah and the last (seal) of the Prophets." (Surah Al-Ahzab 33:40)

Concept and Islamic Foundations — Necessity and Functions

• Necessary because human reason alone cannot reliably determine the precise method of worship, the full scope of the moral code required of human beings, or the true nature of the unseen (Ghayb).
• Every Prophet performed the same essential functions: conveying revelation (Tabligh), embodying it in daily practice (Uswa Hasana), purifying the surrounding society (Tazkiya), and establishing justice.

Significance of Finality

• The finality declared in 33:40 gives this institution its permanent, universal character, since the Qur'an and Sunnah of the final Prophet ﷺ remain sufficient guidance for every generation, with no further Prophet required.

Relevance to Contemporary Society

• Prophethood's importance lies in the certainty and concreteness it offers — a livable example rather than shifting philosophical opinion — uniting communities around one shared moral-legal framework and anchoring accountability in revelation rather than in whatever happens to be fashionable at a given moment.

Why revelation and human example both matter

Risalah in Islamic belief means that Allah communicates guidance through chosen messengers, combining revealed teaching with a practical human example. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ is understood as the final prophet (Qur'an 33:40), and Qur'an 21:107 describes his mission in terms of mercy. The institution of prophethood addresses moral uncertainty and supplies an integrated pattern of worship, personal conduct, family life, law and community organisation.

The examination question asks for importance in human life, so list mechanisms rather than devotional assertions alone: revelation sets moral criteria; the Prophetic example makes duties practicable; communal teaching creates shared obligations; and accountability discourages unjust conduct. The Qur'an still calls on human beings to reason and reflect, so revelation and responsible intellect need not be presented as opponents. Modern application lies in the ethical principles of trust, dignity, mercy and fair dealings rather than claims that every historical institution can be copied unchanged.

Historical example and present-day relevance

The Prophet's ﷺ teaching was conveyed both through revelation and through decisions in concrete situations, including the formation of community agreements, fair treatment in personal dealings and the teaching of worship. This dual form of guidance matters: abstract rules are often misunderstood until their practical application is visible. The Prophetic model also connects mercy and justice; fairness cannot be abandoned merely because a dispute is difficult. In contemporary life, the relevant lessons include trustworthy leadership, care for those with less power and a willingness to deliberate responsibly about new challenges. These applications answer the “importance” element rather than simply restating doctrine.

Conclusion

Prophethood is the essential bridge connecting divine guidance to practical human conduct across every age.

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Q5. How does Islam highlight human dignity and greatness? Discuss.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Qur'anic Evidence → Dignity Detached from Race or Status → Concrete Legal and Social Protections → Human Greatness → Conclusion

Introduction

The Qur'an grants human beings dignity unconditionally, extending it to every person regardless of belief, and appoints humanity to a position of trust above the rest of creation.

Guidance from the Holy Qur'an

"We have certainly honoured the children of Adam." (Surah Al-Isra 17:70)

"Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority [Khalifah]." (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:30)

Dignity Detached from Race or Status

• Surah Al-Hujurat declares the most honoured among people is the most righteous, not the most powerful or well-born (49:13) — a principle the Farewell Sermon reaffirmed by name in rejecting any superiority of Arab over non-Arab or white over black.

Concrete Legal and Social Protections

• Life, honour and property declared inviolable; slander and humiliation of others strictly forbidden.
• The Prophet ﷺ personally elevated former slaves such as Bilal (R.A.) to positions of honour, while enjoining kindness toward orphans, the poor and even prisoners of war.

Human Greatness

• Angels were commanded to prostrate before Adam (A.S.) (2:34).
• Humanity alone was entrusted with the Amanah — the trust of free will and moral responsibility — that "the heavens and the earth and the mountains" themselves declined to bear out of fear of its weight (33:72).

Common ground, differences and enforcement

Islamic human-rights discussions should separate human dignity, specific legal entitlements and the means of enforcement. Qur'an 17:70 honours the children of Adam; Qur'an 4:135 establishes an uncompromising obligation of justice; and Qur'an 49:13 rejects inherited superiority based on ethnicity or lineage. The UDHR, adopted in 1948, articulates universal standards through a modern international rights instrument. There are substantive overlaps, especially around dignity and protection against arbitrary injury, but there are also real disagreements over freedom of religion, gender-related law and the relationship between individual choice and religious norms.

A comparative answer should neither ignore these disagreements nor assume all Muslim jurists share one interpretation. The UDHR itself is a declaration rather than an international treaty, although many of its principles influence binding legal norms. The strongest analytical question is practical: who can enforce rights when officials, families or majorities violate them? Independent courts, legal awareness, accessible complaints procedures and equal protection are indispensable under either framework. An exam answer should distinguish ideals from imperfect implementation on both sides.

Practical Example: translating dignity into remedies

Suppose a vulnerable citizen suffers unlawful detention, discriminatory denial of public service or coercion over inherited property. A declaration of dignity by itself will not secure a remedy. The person needs accessible legal advice, impartial investigation, an independent decision-maker and a way to enforce the outcome. This example tests both Islamic claims about justice and modern rights commitments against actual institutional performance. A comparative answer becomes stronger when it asks not only which rights are affirmed but also how infringements are corrected. It should also identify genuine differences in legal interpretation without assuming that every Muslim state follows the same practice.

Conclusion

This framework of unconditional dignity rooted in creation, reinforced by concrete moral and legal protection, and crowned by humanity's unique acceptance of the Trust, represents one of history's earliest and most comprehensive articulations of human worth and greatness.

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Q6. How can the system of accountability in Pakistan be idealized in the teachings of the Holy Prophet ﷺ? Explain.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Prophetic Evidence → Critical / Comparative Dimension → The Rashidun Template → Applying the Model to Pakistan → Conclusion

Introduction

The Prophet ﷺ established accountability as an inescapable feature of any position of authority.

Guidance from the Sunnah

"Each of you is a shepherd, and each of you is responsible for his flock." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

"If Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, were to steal, I would cut off her hand." (Sahih al-Bukhari & Sahih Muslim)

Critical Evaluation and Comparative Perspective

• Measured against this standard, Pakistan's current accountability mechanisms — frequently criticised for selective application, political victimisation, and prolonged delay — fall well short of the equal, swift and impartial accountability the Prophetic and Rashidun model demands.

The Rashidun Template

• Hazrat Umar (R.A.) instituted systematic monitoring of his governors' wealth both before and after their appointment (Muhasabat-ul-'Ummal), removed officials for even minor misconduct, and welcomed public correction so openly that he once said he feared being questioned by Allah even over a mule stumbling on the bank of the Euphrates for want of a properly paved road.

Applying the Model to Pakistan

• Building depoliticised, uniformly applied accountability institutions immune to selective targeting.
• Requiring transparent asset declaration from every public officeholder without exception.
• Establishing genuinely speedy trial mechanisms, echoing the swift, on-the-spot justice of the Prophetic era.
• Cultivating a culture in which open citizen correction of the powerful, as Umar (R.A.) practised it, is welcomed rather than suppressed.

From moral responsibility to enforceable institutions

Islamic accountability begins with the idea that authority is a trust and that the ruler, like every citizen, answers for its use. Qur'an 4:58 ties public trust to justice, while Qur'an 4:135 requires fairness even against personal interests. The Rashidun examples are instructive because they connect that ideal to the scrutiny of officials, consultation over decisions, public access to leadership and limits on the misuse of common resources.

The contemporary lesson is institutional rather than merely biographical. Financial disclosure, independent investigation, transparent procurement, reasoned administrative decisions and meaningful judicial review are tools for translating moral duties into enforceable standards. Officials must be accountable regardless of political affiliation; otherwise anti-corruption becomes a weapon against opponents. Critical argument: exemplary rulers cannot replace stable checks and balances. Pakistan's reform priorities should include timely adjudication, protection for lawful complaints, better administrative records and equal application of accountability laws.

Application to Pakistan's governance

The critical question is what happens after misconduct is reported. If records are inaccessible, investigators are politically dependent and courts are unable to decide cases promptly, the promise of accountability remains weak. A workable system needs accurate public accounts, independent scrutiny, fair hearings and timely enforcement of decisions. Civil servants must know that favouritism and negligence can be reviewed, while citizens must be protected against malicious allegations and arbitrary punishment. Such institutional safeguards give contemporary expression to the Islamic concept of amanah without relying on the exceptional virtue of an individual ruler.

Conclusion

Pakistan's accountability system can be genuinely idealised along these lines not by inventing new principles but by sincerely implementing the equality before law, transparency and non-selective justice the Prophetic model has already provided in full.

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Q7. How is it possible to eliminate religious and political extremism in Pakistan in the light of the teachings of the Holy Prophet ﷺ? Explain.

Marks: 20 · Recommended exam length: 500–650 words

Answer outline: Introduction → Qur'anic Evidence → Prophetic Model of Reconciliation → Applying the Model to Pakistan's Extremism Problem → Conclusion

Introduction

The Prophet ﷺ repeatedly warned against religious extremism (Ghuluw), and the Qur'an describes the community he founded as one of balance rather than harshness.

Guidance from the Holy Qur'an

"And thus We have made you a just [balanced] community." (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:143)

Prophetic Model of Reconciliation

• The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and the general amnesty at the Conquest of Makkah both show conflict resolved through patience and negotiation rather than force.
• The Charter of Madina demonstrates the accommodation of religious and political diversity within a single, shared framework rather than the suppression of difference.

Applying the Model to Pakistan's Extremism Problem

• Pakistan's extremism problem is rooted in sectarian polarisation, the misuse of Takfir, poverty exploited for recruitment, a weak justice system, and unchecked circulation of extremist material.
• Restoring correct religious understanding through credible, mainstream Ulema mirrors the Prophet's ﷺ own practice of personally teaching and correcting misunderstanding.
• Fostering unity (Ukhuwwah) across sects follows his integration of Madina's diverse tribes into a single political community.
• Ensuring justice and addressing socio-economic grievance reflects his consistent insistence that social stability depends on fair treatment for all.
• Pursuing political reconciliation through dialogue echoes his preference for treaty-making over prolonged conflict.
• Education reform replacing hateful material with the Prophet's ﷺ actual teachings of tolerance completes this approach.

Diagnose causes before prescribing remedies

Extremism cannot be explained only by defective religious knowledge. Sectarian mobilisation, exclusionary politics, unequal justice, militant recruitment, regional conflict and online propaganda can interact with distorted interpretations of religion. The answer should distinguish violent extremism and incitement from legitimate religious observance, doctrinal disagreement or peaceful political dissent. Without this distinction, a policy aimed at prevention risks alienating the very communities whose cooperation it needs.

Islamic ethical principles supply clear restraints: the sanctity of life (5:32), justice even toward those one dislikes (5:8), and the obligation to settle differences without indiscriminate violence. The policy response should operate on several levels: enforce laws against violence and incitement; improve investigative fairness and access to justice; strengthen credible religious education and scholarly dialogue; address vulnerable communities' socioeconomic exclusion; and build pathways for disengagement from militant networks. Critical assessment: coercive policing alone can suppress symptoms without resolving recruitment, whereas awareness campaigns alone cannot stop armed groups. Security, rule of law and public trust must work together.

Reform Strategy: prevention, protection and rehabilitation

An effective programme needs an order of action. First, protect threatened communities and prevent foreseeable attacks. Second, investigate crimes without collective punishment or arbitrary detention, because injustice creates fresh grievances. Third, interrupt recruitment through credible teachers, family support, community reporting and counter-messaging that addresses the claims used by militant groups. Finally, offer carefully supervised rehabilitation to individuals who can safely disengage from violence. Results should be judged by declining attacks, stronger public trust and durable reintegration, not merely by the number of arrests. This turns the Islamic commitment to life and justice into a serious public-policy response.

Conclusion

The Prophet's ﷺ own method — correcting misunderstanding, ensuring justice, building an inclusive political community, and choosing negotiated peace wherever possible — provides a proven and practical template for eliminating both religious and political extremism in Pakistan.

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Q8. Write notes on the following: (a) Ijtihad (b) The importance of the epistles of Hazrat Ali (R.A.)

Marks: 20 total (10 + 10) · Recommended exam length: 250–325 words for each part

Answer outline: Part (a)/(i) → evidence → explanation → significance; Part (b)/(ii) → evidence → explanation → significance

(a) Ijtihad — 10 marks

• Ijtihad is a qualified jurist's independent reasoning to derive a Shariah ruling where the Qur'an and Sunnah are silent, drawing on tools such as Qiyas, Istihsan and Maslaha while remaining oriented toward the Maqasid-e-Shariah.
• A frequently cited report concerning Mu'adh bin Jabal illustrates reasoned judgement, though scholars debate its chain; the broader basis of ijtihad rests on sound legal methodology, relevant scriptural guidance and juristic practice.
• Practised extensively both by the Sahabah — as when Umar (R.A.) ruled on the taxation of conquered lands — and by the four great Imams, whose collective efforts produced the four schools of Fiqh.
• Its contemporary importance lies in addressing genuinely modern issues, from bioethics to Islamic finance to emerging technology, keeping Shariah dynamic provided it never contradicts a clear text.

Further analysis (a): Ijtihad is disciplined legal reasoning in matters requiring interpretation, not unrestricted personal preference. The jurist must understand the relevant texts, the methods of analogy and the facts of the case. Contemporary medical and financial questions often benefit from collective consultation among jurists and specialists. This shows the value of principled flexibility without altering clear religious obligations.

Exam insight (a): Use a present-day case such as medical treatment or online commerce to show why legal interpretation requires knowledge of both textual principles and the facts of the issue.

Conclusion to part (a): The decisive point is that new problems demand accurate knowledge and legally disciplined reasoning. Ijtihad preserves continuity with the Qur'an and Sunnah while helping scholars examine situations that earlier jurists could not have encountered in the same technical form.

(b) The importance of the epistles of Hazrat Ali (R.A.) — 10 marks

• Hazrat Ali's (R.A.) letters, most notably his detailed instructions to governor Malik al-Ashtar in Egypt, are regarded as a foundational text of Islamic political thought on governance, justice and administrative ethics.
• Recurring themes: a ruler must treat his subjects with compassion, "for they are either your brothers in faith or your equals in humanity"; justice must be applied with strict impartiality; public welfare must always take precedence over personal gain.
• Mark them as among the earliest and most sophisticated treatises on statecraft in Islamic history, comparable in depth and enduring relevance to classical works of political philosophy still studied today.

Further analysis (b): The letters and instructions attributed to Hazrat Ali, particularly the well-known counsel to Malik al-Ashtar in later compilations, highlight compassion, impartial administration and protection of public resources. Their enduring value lies in seeing the governed as people with rights rather than instruments of power. A modern comparison can connect these principles to judicial fairness, merit-based appointments and accountable civil service.

Exam insight (b): Link the counsel on compassion and just administration to modern public service and independent oversight; acknowledge historical transmission when citing particular epistles.

Conclusion to part (b): This advice matters today because public authority must be judged by how it treats those with little power. A ruler who protects legal equality and public welfare fulfils the ethical purpose of government more faithfully than one who relies solely on prestige or displays of piety.